January 19, 2026
In this modern era, the use of renewable energy like Solar is witnessing a surge due to the rising cost of fossil fuels, sustainability goals, and other factors. Besides utility-scale solar plants, the ratio of rooftop solar PV installations in homes, commercial space, and industrial buildings has also seen growth! But have you thought that, when these panels generate surplus energy, how can one utilize it as a source of extra income for saving on energy bills? Net Energy Metering, or NEM, is the concept that comes to the rescue at this particular stage.
Introduction to Net Energy Metering
Net Energy Metering (or Net Metering) is a billing mechanism that allows owners of solar energy systems to earn credit for the excess electricity they supply to the grid. Think about a solar photovoltaic (PV) system installed on the roof of a residential customer and having the provision of Net Energy Metering. When it generates an excess amount of electricity that the home consumes during the day, the meter runs backwards and credits consumers. Later on, if the solar panels yield inadequate power (for instance, at night or on an overcast day with low sunlight), the credits compensate for electricity drawn from the grid.
Depending upon the country, region, or utility-specific regulations, NEMs are applicable for any domestic, commercial, industrial, and agricultural sector.
Importance of Net Energy Metering in Different Aspects
Using Net Energy Metering, it is possible to reduce utility bills and promote widespread usage of solar energy. With Net Metering, domestic and C&I consumers become more enthusiastic to move forward with green electricity generation by PV installation. The more green electric generation we have, the more we help Earth to become sustainable - a step forward in fighting climate change.
In the context of modernization and stabilization of grids, NEM plays a significant role. Net Metering helps lower peak load demand conditions during the day and reduces issues like load shedding by balancing between demand and generation. Indirectly, NEMs create a smoother demand curve for electricity generation for smart grids. This principle ultimately allows utilities to manage peak electricity load, reduce strain on DERs (distributed energy resources), and help in grid stabilization. By encouraging generation near the point of consumption, NEM prevents losses in long-distance electricity transmission and distribution.
NET Energy Metering in the United States: History and Origin
In 1979, the USA was the first worldwide adopter of the Net Energy metering mechanism. The 28-year-old architect and solar pioneer, Steven Strong from Massachusetts, was responsible for this historical milestone. He had two building projects with solar systems, an apartment complex called Granite Place (5kW) and a PV-integrated solar house called the Carlisle House. Both of them had the Net Metering Architecture installed (draw power from the grid when needed and give back to the grid when there is a surplus with a meter in action).
Now, what made it more interesting is that Strong forgot to inform “Boston Edison”, the local energy retailer, about his intention to supply surplus electricity into their distribution network. The utility was unaware that net metering was already in progress. The potential for NEM was there, but Strong was the pioneer who scooped and utilized it, completely unwillingly. And that's how the Net Energy Metering concept got discovered - Steven got immense popularity for his innovation, too!
The 1980’s : Golden Era of Net Energy Metering Revolution in USA
From 1980 to 1983, the concept of NEM gained widespread recognition in other states/utilities across the USA. The following states were Idaho in 1980, Arizona in 1981, Massachusetts (formally) in 1982, and Minnesota in 1983. Minnesota went one step ahead by implementing a law regarding the Net Energy Metering mandate.
By 1990, most states had gradually adopted the concept, experiencing a steep growth. The shift was fueled by two widespread factors - the 1979 Energy Crisis and the 1980 Oil Glut. Also, heavy promotion of renewable energy assets and some technological improvements (decreases in PV costs), etc, were the secondary factors.
As stated in the “Role of Net Metering in the Evolving Electricity System” by the National Academies Press Report [1], 7 states initiated net metering programs in the 1980s, followed by 14 more states by the 1990s, and then another 21 states in the early 2000s.
Energy Policy Act 2005 : The Gradual Shift of Net Energy Metering
On August 8, 2005, the whole Net Energy Metering scenario got another boost as the "Energy Policy Act of 2005 (or EPACT 2005)" was passed by the U.S. Congress. The Primary objective of this bill was to address growing energy challenges, increase the use of renewable energy, and promote Net Energy Metering. As per Section 1251 of EPACT 2005, they stated that "each electric utility shall make available upon request 'Net Metering' service to any electric consumer that the electric utility serves". [2]
With the bill coming into effect, public utilities got the flexibility to provide Net Energy Metering services to interested customers, and states were required to consider implementing the same. The policy indirectly created pressure for utilities to support customers' own energy generation and the development of a framework to sustain distributed energy resources. All of the scenarios ultimately proved to be a golden era for Net Energy Metering.
Net Energy Metering Model Framework: Traditional System
Let's have a deep dive into the framework of Net Energy Metering. The type of net metering that we are going to explain here is the simplest practice, also known as traditional 'true' net metering or 1:1 net metering. It means for every one unit (generally kWh) of electricity sent back to the grid, the household will earn one unit of credit on the next electricity bill.
When a homeowner (or any C&I entity) installs a solar system, the local utility changes the old electric meter to a bi-directional meter that can record the amount of energy that the solar panels are exporting to the grid and the amount of energy that is drawn from the grid (when the PV output is insufficient). At the end of every billing cycle, the utility calculates the balance between the energy imported to the grid and exported back to the home. In the event the homeowner used more electricity than was sold, the utility charges for the excess amount. In contrast, in the case of more export value, the excess amount is credited back to the account or rolled over to the next bill (depending upon utility or federal-specific rules).
Issues with Net Energy Metering - Challenges and Concerns
With the growing concern related to climate change worldwide and stricter government policies for renewables, Net Energy Metering ensures significant and sustainable growth in renewable energy installations. Yet, NEM policies have become a heated and controversial topic in the electricity world these days due to some unforeseen challenges. Let's have a look at them -
Cost Shifting and Inequity for Customers - With NEM in effect, utilities compensate rooftop solar owners the entire retail rate. In reality, however, we often see that the value of the solar electricity exported into the grid is often much lower than the retail rate. Consequently, solar owners earn more than the utility-avoided cost, and the fixed grid costs are passed on to non-solar customers. High-income households install solar panels and benefit from subsidies as well as NEM in effect, but low-income customers or households unable to install panels still pay high rates to cover the maintenance of the grid and fixed costs. In this way, net metering generates a subsidy that flows from low-income and non-solar households onto better-off solar adopters. This particular problem with the net metering mechanism sparks most debate and backlash.
Financial Stability Concerns of Utilities- The fixed costs for operating utilities usually remain on the higher side. Here, Net metering reduces the number of kilowatt-hours billed to them, reducing their revenue required to cover the fixed costs. It negatively impacts the financial stability of utility companies and restricts their capacity to make investments in grid reliability and infrastructure..
Notably, solar power generation during midday does not always match peak demand or grid requirements. As a result, the generated value does not always match the actual price determined by grids, which complicates the calculation of accurate compensation.
Grid Dependency- With net metering and a rooftop PV system in place, people can generate electricity on their own and earn financial incentives. Well, it doesn't essentially mean that they are completely energy independent. To stay connected with electricity during lower PV generation (usually at night or during rainy days), the local grid acts as a backup power source. Yet, a lot of residential and business entities are now leaning towards energy storage systems (like home battery and BESS).
Accuracy Issues with Metering and Billing Complications - Inaccurate meter reading acts as a serious drawback for the net energy metering mechanism. The bi-directional meter used in the traditional NEM method can often output inaccurate readings as a result of incorrect meter installation, faulty equipment, or even voltage fluctuation - and they are increasingly common nowadays. All of these dilemmas often lead to incorrect billing, a fair concern for both customers and utilities.
Possible Infrastructure Expenditures of Grids - When a large number of businesses or households within the same locality install rooftop solar energy systems and opt for Net Energy Metering, then a possibility arises for upgrading the power grid to accommodate the additional energy flowing in either direction. Typically, the cost is imposed on the company that installs the systems, but it can also increase the general rates of electricity to all.
Uncertainty in Policy and Sustainability - 1:1 Net metering is politically favoured but economically unsustainable in the long run. It forms a consumer entitlement that is difficult to alter once established. Also, the regulations and payout structure of the Net Metering Mechanism are not uniform. Upon witnessing all the concerns we have stated earlier, in most locations, utilities are slowly going against regulations. The growth of net metering is provoking state regulatory conflicts with federal agencies over primary jurisdiction. All combined, the energy sector is being forced to operate in an unpredictable environment while making long-term renewable investment plans.
Modification in Net Energy Metering: NEM 2.0 of California
We have already discussed issues regarding the traditional Net Energy Metering and the criticism it faced all over the USA. Specifically to address the ‘cost shift challenge’ as well as other factors, California was the first state to adopt a modified Net Energy Metering (NEM 2.0) in 2016.
We already know that the traditional net metering is straightforward - every kWh of solar power sent to the grid earns a credit equal to 1 kWh from the utility. NEM 2.0 tweaked a few things.
Non-Bypassable Charges - Under NEM 2.0, solar customers have to pay these NBCs on any electricity they pull from the grid. That was different from NEM 1.0, where solar production could offset those charges.
Time-of-Use (TOU) Rates - NEM 2.0 introduced Time-of-Use rates for all, which means the value of electricity changes throughout the day. Customers might get more credit value during expensive peak hours (usually evenings) and less during off-peak times. It's meant to match what it actually costs utilities to produce electricity at different times.. Technically, customers are credited close to the retail rate, but still pay a small amount per kWh excess.
Interconnection Fees - Depending on the utility and system size, customers have to pay a one-time fee. This covers the expenses of utility companies to get a system onboard.
NEM 3.0 came into effect in April 2023 and introduced some more changes. It basically reduced compensation rates for solar energy fed back into the grid, aiming to address grid management challenges and the cost shift concerns.
Further Modification in Net Energy Metering: Introduction to Net Billing
Over the past few years, the Net Energy Metering framework has seen significant changes. The issues like cost shifting, financial stability concerns, inequity for customers, grid expenditure, etc, were the key reasons behind the restructuring. Net Billing is a modified version of Net Energy Metering 2.0, also called Net Energy Metering 3.0, but that’s unofficial.
Net Billing is closely related to net metering, but with a catch. When a self-generating solar customer sends extra power back to the grid, they get paid less for it than the retail rate (the traditional 1:1 does not apply anymore). Instead of getting credits based on the actual amount of electricity you generate, you get paid in dollars for whatever energy you send to the grid. The utility pays you at a rate they've already set, and they either credit you right away when the power hits the grid, or sometimes they calculate it all at the end of each month. That credit is based on the "Avoided Cost Rate".
Other charges mentioned in California's NEM 2.0 section, like Non-Bypassable Charges, TOU Rates, Interconnection fees, etc, are an integral part of the Net Billing System. On top of these, state-specific utilities also levy some other charges depending on their policy design, which may even have different names. We will discuss them later.
Cons and Pros with Net Billing Mechanism
Under Net billing, customers receive a price for the solar energy they send back to the grid by paying what it actually costs the utility to generate power (avoided cost), rather than the full retail price. This encourages the use of solar energy in a full-consumption mechanism or storing it in a battery instead of just sending it all back to the grid. It removes cost shifting and keeps things fair - people without solar panels don't end up subsidizing those who have them. Net billing is one of the main reasons more homeowners in the USA are installing home batteries.
On the downside, customers receive less compensation from solar panels with net billing compared to traditional net metering, which makes people think twice about installing solar. The billing can also get more complicated to understand, and when policies change from one system to another, it can leave customers feeling uncertain about what to expect. With net billing, one usually can't roll over credits for very long, which means having less flexibility in how people manage their energy and savings over time.
Current Metering / Billing Status across Different States of USA
We have listed a non-exhaustive but comprehensive listing below regarding how states across the USA currently treat NEM vs net billing/transition status. Please note that local utilities might differ further.
Alabama - Alabama doesn't have any mandated Net Energy Metering or Net Billing in place. The federal government and utilities in Alabama offer some incentive programs. To encourage solar adaptation, Alabama has an upfront rebate scheme (Residential Energy Efficiency Rebate Program), performance-based tax incentives (Residential Energy Efficiency Tax Credit), and loan or grant programs (Fannie Mae Green Financing).[3]
Yet, Alabama Power offers a solar buyback plan under the "Purchase of Alternate Energy" scheme, which is similar to Net Billing. The buyback is subject to a nameplate capacity of not more than 100 KW for home systems. Depending on some predefined rate plans, customers are entitled to receive an energy credit rate of approximately $0.04 per kWh. [4] Also, imposes a fixed monthly “solar” or “alt energy” fee for self-generating customers as a grid‑connection or access charge. [5]
Alaska - Alaska has a Net Energy Metering rule in place, established by the Regulatory Commission of Alaska in 2010. Renewable systems up to 25 kW can participate in the NEM and require major utilities to buy from customers who install projects up to 1.5% (Homer Electric Association's cap is 3%) of the utility’s average retail demand.[6]
Alaska has a hybrid system officially called Net Metering (NEM), yet it works more like Net Billing. Every month, the utility calculates the excess electricity generation and credits the customer account at the "non-firm power rate", which is lower than traditional 1:1 billing. Credits roll forward to subsequent bills and do not expire. But, like Net Billing,utilities can't charge extra fees for standby, capacity, and interconnection charges unless the RCA approves.[7]
For example, Homer Electric Association (HEA) was the first utility in Alaska to adopt NEM. Their credit amount is derived by multiplying the excess consumer generation by the Small Facility Power Purchase Rate (SFPPR) in HEA’s filed tariff. Effective July 2025, the current SFPPR is $0.08/kWh. [8]
Alaska State and Federal Govt also encourage people to go for solar by implementing Grant and Loan Programs (Energy Efficiency Interest Rate Reduction Program), Tax Credit (Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit), etc.[9]
Arizona - The state of Arizona has a Net Billing structure in effect. Initially, they had a retail netting in effect, and their Net Billing or Net Metering policy is marked as statewide, applicable to major investor-owned and municipal utilities under the Arizona Corporation Commission's oversight.
In December 2007, the Arizona Corporation Commission (ACC) opened a docket (RE-00000A-07-0608) and issued draft rules for its Net Metering program offerings. [261] The final rules were adopted, and Net Metring was legally initiated on May 23, 2009. 2 At that time, it was full retail netting with any unused credit left at the year-end usually adjusted to the customer's account at avoided cost. The system size limitation was 125% of the customer’s total connected load. [262] In December 2016, the ACC pulled the plug on net metering and started implementing "Net Billing with Export Compensation" instead. The Arizona Corporation Commission doesn't actually cap solar systems at a specific kilowatt size. The 125% system sizing rule was still in entact. [10] Although legacy Net Meeting customers were grandfathered for up to 20 years. [263]
Utility customers in Arizona get billed under wholesale or ‘avoided cost ‘ based rates for the exported power. For qualifying under the Net Billing mechanism, customers under some utilities needs to opt for TOU-based rate plan for any electricity they draw from the grid. Export rates vary significantly between utilities. For example, Arizona Public Services (APS), UniSource Energy Services (part of UNS Energy) and Tucson Electric Power (TEP) offer their own “Resource Comparison Proxy” (RCP) export rate. The most recent figure shows the RCP rate is $0.068 per kWh for APS,$0.061 per kWh for UniSource and $0.057 per kWh for TEP. [10][264]
Although Salt River Projects (or SRP) is not regulated by ACC, it still offers an identical program. It bills under the "Time‑of‑Use Export Plan," where credit is applied for exported generation at a fixed rate of $0.028 per kWh. [11] All these utilities have there own credit rollover systems as described later.
UniSource Energy Services offers a rollover of excess credit until October and provides a full refund to the customer's account if any leftover credit remains. [265] APS offers the same for any excess over $25, unless it offers further forwarding**.** [266] For TEP, the threshold is $10. [267] Salt River Projects (or SRP) do not offer such crediting. Notably, RCP rates for the three main IOU usually lock in for a 10-year timeline.
Arkansas - For Arkansas, both Net Metering and Net Billing co-exist. Arkansas's Net metering is governed by the Arkansas Renewable Energy Development Act of 2001. In 2023, the state passed Act 278, or the Cost-Shifting Prevention Act, which alters how Net Metering and Net Billing work for new systems.The traditional 1:1 Net Metering only applies to systems installed before Oct 1, 2024. New customers will receive credit at the avoided cost rate, essentially the wholesale price. [12] As per. Grandfathering policy, systems installed by September 30, 2024, will remain under the current net metering program until September 30, 2040, or 20 years from the original installation date, whichever comes first. [13]
For Arkansans, residential systems are usually capped at whichever is smaller - either 25 kW or the highest usage over the past 12 months. Non-residential systems get larger caps up to 5 MW. Excess credit can be forwarded to subsequent billing cycles indefinitely.
From official data, we have determined that the current avoided cost rate for SWEPCO (Southwestern Electric Power Company) and Entergy Arkansas is approximately $0.02 per kWh. [14][15] Craighead Electric has not finalised the specific rates.
California - California has led the way in clean energy, especially solar power (over 25% of U.S. solar electricity), and net metering has been central to that transformation. California has a Net Billing policy in effect with grandfathered Retail Net Metering, which is generally mandated by the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC). Both policies are state-wide, yet only IOUs generally offers them to their qualifying customers.
The erstwhile Retail NEM policy of California was established by Senate Bill 656, which took effect in 1996. At that time, the maximum system size was 10 kW. [255] Over time, the eligible system size was expanded (e.g., up to 1 MW), and PSC further introduced a utility-specific cap of 0.5% of the utility’s peak demand. The cap applied by certain utilities was breached in numerous locations in 2016 -17, which was the primary reason for the NEM 2.0 transition. [256] For our readers who don’t know NEM 2.0, its originally like Retail NEM mechanism but attracts non-bypassable charges, interconnection fees and TOU rates for imported energy. [257] After implementation of NEM 2.0, the growth of rooftop solar installation was massive but it attracted some concerns like cost-shifting, grid management, and accurately reflecting the real-time value of solar energy. Utilities and regulators took this concern into account, and CPSC decided to introduce NEM 3.0 or the Net Billing mechanism. The transition or the mechanism came into effect on April 15, 2023. [258] Under Net Billing, California IOU customers gets paid for exporting excess energy to the grid at avoided cost or wholesale value and TOU credit structures gets more complex. Co-ops and municipal utilities participation is voluntary.
NEM 2.0 still co-exists in California under the grandfathering policy. According to CPUC Decision D.14‑03‑041, customers with their own system can remain on the NEM 2.0 tariff for 20 years from their interconnection date, if opted before April 14, 2023. [16] They can even add battery storage without losing grandfathered status, provided the total system size stays below 1.1 times their annual load. [17].
The export compensation rates for customers in California really depend on the local utility and vary. With PG&E, customers can expect roughly **0.07 per kWh, and SDG&E pays about $0.06 per kWh. [18] All these rates are tied to TOU pricing and avoided cost as usual.
The CPUC doesn't put a specific limit on solar systems, but wants them sized to match actual needs (under 150% of historical consumption). Even there is not any documented interconnection limits, specific state-wide or utility-specific cap set. All utilities maintain monthly netting and credit rollover policies. But credits may reset or lapse if unused for a very long time.
In addition to the rates mentioned earlier, CPUC has also introduced an “Export Adder”. [19] The program increases NEM 3.0 export rates for PG&E and SCE customers by adding a temporary, declining payment over five years - $0.02 per kWh for PG&E and $0.04 per kWh for SCE - to offset lower base rates. [20]
As of October 2025, California's NEM 3.0 program applies exclusively to customers of the state's three major investor-owned utilities - PG&E, SCE, and SDG&E (Pacific Gas and Electric, Southern California Edison, and San Diego Gas & Electric). [26] Municipal utilities like LADWP are not subject to NEM 3.0 and maintain their own solar billing policies just like the traditional 1:1 mechanism.
In 2024, Assembly Bill 2619 was introduced, which instructed the CPUC to establish a new solar rate plan by 2027 to replace the NBT. The bill also aimed to prevent the creation of new charges targeted at the NEM customers. [259] But the bill could not advance that much in the Senate. [260]
**Colorado -**In 2004, Colorado voters approved the country's first renewable energy standard by public ballot, allowing the Colorado Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) to adopt Net Metering standards and grid interconnection rules in 2005. [21] Colorado's policy lets homeowners and businesses qualify for Net Metering as long as their solar or renewable system doesn't exceed 120% of yearly consumption. Residential systems typically have size limits of 10 kW for most utilities, where commercial systems can reach 25 kW.[23]Excess generation credits typically roll over from month to month but may expire after a specified period, depending on the utility.
Yet, there is a catch. New systems installed after January 1, 2024 are getting billed with revised compensation rates based on the utility's avoided cost of energy - reflects a shift toward Net Billing, For instance, Consolidated Cooperative has a policy in place, where if a system generates significantly more than 100 kWh, the first 100 kWh receive credit at the retail rate, while the excess receives credit at the avoided-cost rate. [22] Though we do not have the current avoided cost rate, historically it was in a range of .0247/kWh/month [25].
In addition to that, Colorado Springs Utilities has proposed a transition to an Energy Wise Renewable Net Metering Rate Option in January 2027, updating net metering rates to reflect peak electricity costs, introducing TOU pricing, and demand charges.[24]
Connecticut - Back in May 2018, Connecticut passed S.B. 9 and overhauled its Net Metering and renewable energy rules. It ended the old Net Metering setup for new customers as of January 1, 2022. Yet, existing customers got to stay on the old system - locked in until December 2039. New installations are now looking at new programs - the Residential Renewable Energy Solutions (RRES) program for homeowners and the Non-Residential version for commercial customers. Under these two new Tariff programs, new customers get to pick either a "Buy-all, Sell-all" setup or a "Netting Tariff" option**.** [34] Under RRES, a home solar system can't exceed 25 kW, and while sizing it, customers have to make sure its annual production doesn't exceed their highest yearly electricity use from the past 5 years. [38]
With 'Netting Tariff', excess power generation credits are based on the retail rate, or close to it, depending on how things are calculated. They roll over from month to month**.** [35]. And with the "Buy-All / Sell-All Tariff" structure, 100% of the solar system's electricity exports directly to the grid without first supplying power to their own home. The utility purchases power at a rate the Public Utilities Regulatory Authority (PURA) approves (covering both energy value and Renewable Energy Certificates), locked in for 20 years. Although the homeowners purchase all the power that they consume from the utility at the retail rate, they require different meters that can measure the amount of power that they generate and the amount of power that they consume. The predictable compensation returns in the form of a credit, which lowers the bill every month, or a cash payment every quarter. [36]
For both Eversource and United Illuminating, the Buy-All rate is fixed at $0.3195 per kWh, locked for 20 years. [37]
Delaware - Delaware's Net Energy Metering policy, which operates under Title 26, Section 1014 of the Delaware Code, has been in effect since 1999. [27] Delaware has system size limits for each segment. For residential, it's up to 25 kW per meter. Farms can apply for NEM for up to 150 kW per meter. For C&I customers, Delmarva Power & Light (DP&L) has the provision of up to 2 MW per meter, while Delaware Electric Cooperative (DEC) and Municipal Utilities have up to 500 kW per meter. [28] One can size their system to generate up to 110% of their electricity usage over a historic 24-month period. [29]
Excess electricity generated receives credit at the utility's current kWh rate; it still depends on the utility in some cases. Credits offset future consumption but expire at the end of the annual billing period.
According to Delaware Senate Bill 175 (July 2025), in recent modifications, all utilities are required to credit or carry over any excess kWh credits so customers benefit from them - no expiry anymore. [30] Also, Senate Joint Resolution 1 was passed in February 2025, which directs all electric utilities offering net metering to continue participating in a cost-benefit study and analysis of the program. [31] This might open the door for Net Billing in the near future for Delaware customers.
Florida - The state of Florida has a Statewide Net Metering rule in place where all the utilities (IOUs, municipal, and co-ops) must offer the program to their eligible customers. Yet, interconnection rules and standards are less specific for municipal utilities and electric cooperatives.
In June 2008, the Florida Legislature passed House Bill 7135 (H.B. 7135), which amended Florida Statute 366.91 to establish formal Net-Metering for customer-owned renewable generation. Primarily, the rules were intended for investor-owned utilities with an individual consumer system cap of 2 MW. [268] Laws for municipal utilities and electric cooperatives were amended on July 1, 2009. [268] Programs for these utilities differ from one to the next and are typically voluntary.
The Florida Public Service Commission oversees Florida's current Net Energy Metering rules. Major investor-owned utilities like Florida Power & Light (FPL), Duke Energy Florida, Tampa Electric Company (TECO), and Florida Public Utilities Corporatio must offer the netting program to their eligible customers. These IOUs serve about 79% of Floridians. [32] Minor municipal and co-op utilities, such as Gainesville Regional Utilities (GRU), City of Newberry Utilities, and Lee County Electric Co-op, offer the same type of programs for their eligible customers.
Utilities in Florida offer Net Metering for solar systems up to 2 MW. Only Florida Public Utilities Corporation has a rule that a system cannot be sized more than 115% of the consumer's annual consumption. [269] Utilities breaks interconnection rules and standards down into three tiers based on the system size. Tier 1 (under 10 kW) is the easiest - no application fee, no insurance proof. For Tier 2 (10 to 100 kW) and Tier 3 (100 to 2,000 kW), customers have to bear application fees up to $1,000 and proof of liability coverage. [33] The “tiered” interconnection rules are applicable only for IOUs.
Solar customers can roll over excess energy credits monthly. Any leftover credits expire at the end of the calendar year and get cashed out at the utility's avoided cost rate.
The unused / leftover excess energy cashout rate for Duke Energy Florida is $0.022 per kWh (2024 rate, update annually). [270] For Florida Power & Light (FPL), the rate is $0.014 per kWh. [271] Lee County Electric Cooperative (LCEC) offers avoided wholesale rate for crediting their net metering clients, which is $0.023 per kWh as of November 2025 [272].
Surprisingly, Gainesville Regional Utilities (a municipal utility in Florida) has a different netting mechanism, where they follow a Net Billing like structure. Any excess generation by customer would be credited at retail fuel adjustment rate. [273] The current retail fuel adjustment rate is $0.035 per kWh. [274]
Florida almost killed net metering in 2022. SB 1024 and HB 741 wanted to scrap the current system and replace it with something that would've eliminated retail-rate credits for any solar systems installed after December 31, 2023. Additionally, the bills gave utilities the green light to charge solar customers with higher fixed charges. State regulators were on board with the whole thing - they wanted to move toward net billing instead. Yet, Governor Ron DeSantis vetoed it all on April 27, 2022, and until now, no one has tried to pass a replacement. [32]
Hawaii - Hawaii made a significant change to how solar customers are compensated for their energy. In 2015, the Hawaii Public Utilities Commission (PUC) officially closed the door on traditional Net Metering for new solar customers. Instead, they introduced a Net Billing system that works quite differently from the old setup. Yet, Grandfathering exists for up to 20 years.
Hawaiian Utility companies used to offer two main billing structures - Grid Supply and Self-Supply. With Grid-Supply, excess exported energy is credited at a fixed export rate rather than the full retail price (varies by island, ranges between $0.15 to $0.28 per kWh). [39] Since retail electricity rates in Hawaii are generally higher, customers are essentially getting paid less for the power they export than what they'd pay to buy it back from the utility. This option works well for those who produce moderate amounts of excess energy and want some compensation for it. Under the Self-Supply plan, customers are expected to consume all the solar power their system generates. Small amounts of excess power can still be sent to the grid, but no compensation is provided for it. [39]
Hawaii's three investor-owned utilities (HECO, HELCO, and Maui Electric Company or MECO) and sole electric cooperative (KIUC) have these tariff options enabled.[40] The majority of residential customers in the grid-supply program have grid connection limit systems of 100 kW or less, but depending on the location and utility regulations. [40]Grandfathered customers have a specific limit of 10 kW in residential systems. Programs like BYOD Plus provide incentives for adding battery storage, with a focus on savings. [41] Hawaii has now completely dissolved the aforementioned plans and switched to Smart Renewable Energy Export and Non-Export Plans.
Georgia - The Georgia Cogeneration and Distributed Generation Act of 2001 allows but doesn't mandate utilities to adopt Net Metering. However, the law does require all utilities to offer either bidirectional or single-directional metering to customers with their own PV.
In 2001, Georgia passed the Cogeneration and Distributed Generation Act, which formally allowed a true Net Metering system for customer-generators using distributed generation systems up to certain capacity limits. Under the law, residential systems are limited to 10 kW and commercial systems to 100 kW, with aggregate capacity capped at 0.2% of the utility's previous year's peak demand. [275] A Georgia Public Service Commission (PSC) decision in December 2019 required Georgia Power (the only investor-owned utility) to offer monthly net metering to 5,000 rooftop solar customers or up to 32 MW of capacity, whichever came first. [42] That threshold was reached in 2021 when the 5,000-customer cap was hit, which eventually introduced a Net Billing-like system. After that date, new applicants could no longer get in under the favorable Net Metering program. [44] Yet, the PSC decided to grandfather existing customers for 15 more years.
As of now, most of the utilities, including Georgia Power, have adopted Net Billing.Any excess power generated instantly gets credited to the next bill at solar avoided cost. As per the latest data from Palmetto, Georgia Power pays approximately $0.07 per kWh for surplus export. These rates aren't fixed; they change annually. In 2024, for example, it was 8.5 cents per kWh. [45] And obviously, unused credits don’t roll into future years. Aside from Georgia Power, smaller utilities and EMC (Electric Membership Corporations) have established their own designed net billing policies in place. Apart from its own policies, Central Georgia and Jacksonville EMC offer rebates of $0.45 per kW (up to 10 kilowatts of installed system size) of installed solar capacity to their customers. [46]
Proposed in 2023, the Georgia PSC is thinking about reforming Net Billing regulations. The Georgia Homegrown Solar Act of 2023, Senate Bill 210, states that the cap on the net metering should be reduced to 5% of the annual maximum demand. The bill also indicates extending the top cap to 15kW for residential and non-residential customers to utilize up to 125 percent of demand. [47] The changes, however, do not apply to municipal and small utilities, and yet, in a "bill" phase.
Idaho - Idaho does not have a uniform statewide net metering mandate. On December 29, 2023, the Idaho Public Utilities Commission introduced a Net Billing structure. Idaho's three largest IOU utilities, ie, Idaho Power, Avista Utilities, and Rocky Mountain Power, have shifted to a net billing mechanism. [48] Yet customers who have connected their system before December 20, 2019, are locked into the old Net Metering until 2045. C&I customers with Rocky Mountain Power and Avista are not entitled to grandfathering.
System size cap also depends on the utilities and is not uniform. All three IOU organizations have set a cap of 25 kW for residential generation, yet Idaho Power offers up to 100 kW cap for their C&I customer. [49] These IOU's offer their Net Billing customers an ECR or Export Credit Rate for excess generation exported to the grid. As of February 2025, the current export credit rate is $0.16 per kWh (on-peak) and $0.05 per kWh (off-peak) during summer, and $0.04 per kWh fixed during non-summer months for Idaho Power. [50] Rocky Mountain Power is looking to set a new ECR of $0.04 per kWh for new Net Billing customers, probably late 2025, subject to regulatory approval. For now, customers under Schedule 136 get credited at the retail rate, but the PUC has mentioned it's only temporary. [51]
The "Credit" rollover and usage policy also depends upon utility-specific rules. Avista Utilities NEM or Schedule 63 credits the net excess generation during a billing period to the customer's next bill. But on March 31 of each year, any leftover credits lapse and are forfeited to the utility. [52] Things are different with Rocky Mountain Power. For their NEM customers, unused export credits expire after one year, yet can be accumulated for up to 12 months. For their net billing consumers, credits may be rolled over until March of each year for residential and until October for irrigation-based PV systems. After that, unused credits would be granted to non‑profit organizations in their service territory. [53] For Idaho Power, both legacy and Net Billing customers have the option to roll over unused credits indefinitely.
Illinois - The traditional net metering system in Illinois abides by rule 220 ILCS 5/16-107.5 and was effective until the end of 2024. [54]. Effective January 1, 2025, the Climate and Equitable Jobs Act (CEJA) of Illinois placed an order for the transition of traditional NEM to a net metering system based on a supply-only rate for new customers. The rate is referred to as Smart Solar Billing. [55] The legacy NEM customers are grandfathered for over 30 years, subject to the customer not taking the Smart Inverter Rebate. [56]
The investor-owned utilities like ComEd, Ameren, and MidAmerican are responsible for providing net billing services to qualifying customers. However, the policies of municipal utilities and electric co-operatives might be different. In general, renewable systems within 2 MW nameplate capacity placed on the premises of the customer are eligible for NEM and Smart Solar Billing. Larger systems up to 5 MW might also be eligible under specific circumstances, depending on utility-specific rules.[56]
If we talk about excess credit rates, that is designed based on how much each utility pays for buying electricity from wholesale suppliers - known as the “supply” rate. Under Smart Solar Billing, the credit is offered at the supply rate to customers who have Net Billing in effect. For Ameren and ComEd, the rate is approximately $0.055 per kWh where whereas MidAmerican costs approximately $0.038 per kWh. [57] With the new system, additional credits can be carried over for as long as possible for every IOU. In compensation for the reduced credit of the new supply-only rate, customers may receive a one-time rebate for a solar system having smart inverters. [58]
Indiana - Indiana has phased out traditional net metering and replaced it with a new system called "Excess Distributed Generation" (EDG), which works more like net billing. This change came into effect through state law (SEA 309) passed in 2017. [59]
For customers of investor-owned utilities, the traditional NEM officially ended no later than July 1, 2022 (or even earlier if utilities hit certain capacity limits, which is usually 5% of the utility’s aggregate peak demand). [60] Existing NEM customers will be grandfathered, and they will keep receiving full 1:1 credits until two specific deadlines. Systems interconnected between January 1, 2018, and July 1, 2022, will be grandfathered up to 2032, and systems interconnected before December 31, 2017, will be grandfathered up to 2047. [60]
Indiana's major investor-owned utilities - NIPSCO (Northern Indiana Public Service Company), AES, Duke Energy, I&M (Indiana Michigan Power), and CenterPoint - all need to follow the SEA309 mandate for offering Net Billing. Any consumer who installs a new system after July 1, 2022, would be shifted to the Excess Distributed Generation (EDG) program. The utility sets the EDG credit by taking the average wholesale cost and adding a 25% premium. [61] We do not have any specific data for system size capping for customers under the EDG programme, but yes, for NEM, it was <1 MW nameplate capacity.
As per the updated information received from ‘Solar United Neighbours’, the current EDG rates for NIPSCO customers are $0.038 per kWh, AES pays $0.041 per kWh, Duke Energy pays $0.040 per kWh, I&M has a rate of $0.036 per kWh, and CenterPoint pays $0.039 per kWh. [62] If we talk about the unused credit policy, only for CenterPoint, unused credits expire at the end of a billing cycle. Rest IOUs offer roll-over indefinitely. [62]
Iowa - The State of Iowa has a traditional Net Metering in place, yet running a new billing format called as Inflow-Outflow mechanism in parallelly. Iowa's Net Metering history is not as rich as other major states, yet it's important to keep it in mind. The Iowa Utilities Board (IUB) adopted a sub-rule in July 1984 (IAC 199-15.11(5)), which serves as the backbone of Iowa's Net Metering policy. At the time of implementation, the cash-out system for the net excess generation was based on the avoided-cost rate, and it was not defined which utilities could offer the net metering system to their customers. Even the early rules did not specify a system size cap or total program caps at that time. [157]
The complete reform in Iowa's Net Metering mechanism took place between 2015 and 2017 when the IUB directed the major IOUs, MidAmerican Energy Company and Alliant Energy, to file pilot net-metering tariffs as part of the DG inquiry in July 2016. [158] In May 2017, MidAmerican and Alliant presented their tariff, and subsequently, the IUB adopted it. With these tariffs, IUB implemented four major modifications: a true retail net metering system at retail rate, the cap on eligible system size was raised to 1MW, the customer limit on system size was capped at 100% of their load, and an excess credit cashout mechanism at avoided cost. [159]
Again, on March 12, 2020, there was a further modification in NEM policy as the Iowa Senate signed bill SF583. Under the bill, IUB required the utilities to submit new tariffs, which would retain a "Net Billing" like scheme called "Inflow/Outflow" for new customers. [160] We will discuss this later on. Also, they filed a provision to grandfather legacy customers into the traditional NEM mechanism with no cutoff date provided. [161] It took some time to implement the modified rate for MidAmerican and Alliant.
In addition to the above points, the SF583 has set a future trigger. The law mandated the development of the value of solar (VOS) method to compensate excess export generation for Inflow/Outflow customers by July 1, 2027, or by the time statewide DG penetration is 5% of peak demand - whichever reaches first. [162]
We have already mentioned earlier that only IOU’s in Iowa are responsible for offering their Net Metering or Net Billing to their customers; the rest are voluntary. We also defined the system size earlier (<1 MW and 100% of annual load). Now, what is the inflow/outflow mechanism? Well, it’s nothing but a flashy term to define Net Billing like structure, where inflow means electric consumed from the grid billed at a defined retail value to the user, and outflow means excess generation exported to the grid, which utilities buy at a utility-determined outflow rate. Under this billing method, utilities use two separate meter to determine value.
If we talk about the credit rollover system, grandfathered customers can roll over these credits indefinitely to use later as they get kWh credits. For Inflow/Outflow customers, they receive monetary cashback, and the rollover plus unused NEG credit payout rules are specific to each utility. Both MidAmerican Energy and Alliant offer credits monthly, and customers can rollover them to subsequent months, but unless they use it before year-end, it may lapse. [163]
For MidAmerican Energy, customers under the Inflow/Outflow billing mechanism get paid approx $0.0195 per kWh for exports (for full solar systems).
Kansas - Kansas maintains a net metering program established under the Net Metering and Easy Connection Act. [63] The program is mandatory for the IOU, including Evergy and The Empire District Electric Company (Liberty Utilities). Municipal utilities and cooperatives aren't mandated to offer the same.
The previous capacity capping for Residential, C&I, and Schools was 15kW, 100kW, and 150 kW AC, respectively. The 2024 HB2527 legislation standardized and increased the capacity limit to 150 kW AC for all customer categories. [64] In addition to the limit on individual systems, HB 2527 also expanded the total amount of net-metered solar that the IOUs in Kansas are required to accept. The previous cap was approximately 2% where the new modified cap is set to increase annually until it reaches 5% of the utility's peak demand. [65]
Under NEM, excess generation or NEG credits do not last forever - they expire on March 31 each year.For systems that began operating on or after July 1, 2014, any NEG is typically credited to the next bill at the utility's average cost rate. [66]
Besides traditional NEM, Kansas utilities also offer a Parallel Generation contract, which is not very popular. As per K.S.A. 66-1184. All utilities providing retail electric service in Kansas have to offer this option. Under the contract, for systems <200 kW (capacity limits are 25 kW for residential and 200 kW for commercial), utilities buy the entire exported electricity at 150% of the utility's monthly system average cost of energy per kWh. [67] The customer still pays at the same retail rate for imported electricity. This is time-sensitive and has no credit banking like net metering. The utilities can credit accounts or pay customers at least once a year, or once compensation reaches $25 or above. The utilities are mandated to buy more than 4% of their peak power demand. [66]
Kentucky - Kentucky had a retail Net Metering in place until the end of 2019. During the 2019 legislative session, Kentucky passed a bill (S.B. 100) that makes several changes to the traditional structure. Starting from May 14, 2020, the bill increased the maximum system size to 45 kW and requires the state Public Service Commission to implement a new crediting structure for new customers under each utility based on dollar value rather than kWh netting - a shift towards Net Billing.[68] Yet old customers are grandfathered under traditional Net Metering for 25 years, depending upon utility-specific rules.[69] Systems above 45 kW follow specific PPA agreements. The credits roll over each month.
Every IOU, including Kentucky Power Co, Kentucky Utilities, Louisville Gas & Electric or LG&E, Duke Energy Kentucky, and Electric Energy Inc, is responsible for the operation and maintenance of both mechanisms. The new tariff structure, often referred to as Net Metering Service 2 (NMS-2), compensates the excess generation with a dollar-denominated bill credit.[70] The Kentucky PSC had initially mandated a uniform export credit rate of $0.097 per kWh for the initial days. Later, Kentucky Utilities and Louisville Gas & Electric set the rate at $0.073 per kWh and $0.069 per kWh, respectively. while Kentucky Power Company is still paying $0.097 per kWh. [71]
Louisiana - The PSC of Louisiana made a significant shift in 2020, moving from traditional 1:1 Net Metering to Net Billing for new solar customers in late 2019 through a rulemaking proceeding (Docket R-33929). [72] Anyone who installs and receives approval for their system before December 31, 2019, gets grandfathered for up to 15 years. [74] This policy covers major IOU's like Entergy Louisiana and CLECO Power. Surprisingly, New Orleans is the only city in the USA that regulates its local IOU - Entergy, which doesn't follow the PSC mandate [76].
Under retail Net metering, the cap for residential systems was <25 kW, and commercial plus agricultural systems up to 300 kW. [73] Net Billing customers receive an export compensation at an "avoided cost" rate. **Entergy Louisiana'**s avoided cost rate in 2025 is roughly $0.025 per kWh.[73] CLECO Power also follows nearly the same rate. [75] Extra credits get carried forward to the next month and do not expire.
Maine - In Maine, Net Metering operates under the Maine Public Utilities Commission (PUC), and the programme is called “Net Energy Billing”. The state's program supports both rooftop solar installations and large community solar projects through the program. [77] Governed by P.L. 2019 c. 478, P.L. 2021 c. 390, and Chapter 313 of the PUC rules, Maine offers two compensation options - NEB kWh Credit Program and NEB tariff Rate Program (non-residential only).[78]
The Net Energy Billing kWh Credit Program works like traditional net metering. The program is available for any consumer, yet residential and very small-scale businesses utilize it more. The production and consumption are netted monthly; excess kWh credits roll over for the next 12 months and expire after that. [79]. On the contrary, the NEB tariff rate program is available only to non‑residential customers and offers dollar credits on participating customers’ electric bills at tariff rates.[78] As of July 2023, under Law LD 1986, the maximum system size for new projects entering the NEB Program is limited to 1 MW. [80] IOU customers like Central Maine Power and Versant Power, as well as every consumer-owned utility such as Eastern Maine Electric Cooperative, can access these programs.
The current tariff rates for the ‘‘NEB Tariff Rate’ program vary by utilities but are pre-determined by the Maine PUC. Here we are taking an average rate for all customer classes (Small Business, Medium Business, and Large Business). The Central Maine Power offers $.202 per kWh, whereas Versant Power has two distinct rates for two different zones -Bangor Hydro District customers get $0.218133 per kWh, and Maine Public District offers $0.255 per kWh. [78]
Maryland - Maryland has a State-wide True 1:1 Net Metering rule in effect where every type of utility (investor-owned, co-ops or municipal) must offer the same to their qualifying consumers.
Maryland has a Net Energy Metering rule as Maryland Code §7-306 and COMAR 20.50.10 establish the rules and regulations. The state of Maryland enacted the net-metering law in 1997, initially restricted to schools and homeowners with a solar system of up to 80kW and a statewide cap of 0.2%. [276] In 2005, the policy was further expanded as the maximum system capacity increased to 200 kW (500 kW with special permission). [276] As per the 2008 PSC report, the statewide cap was raised to 1.5 GWfrom the earlier 0.2% cap during 2007. [277] The further amendment by Senate Bill 407 in 2021 extended the state-wide cap to 3 GW and defined a new system cap. As per the SB407, systems up to 2MW can participate in the NEM, and they must not cross 200% of the annual baseline electricity usage. [81] As per mid-2024 reports, approximately 962 MW of net-metered systems are interconnected to the grid. [82]
In Maryland, excess NEG credits have two defined policies. Starting October 1, 2023, Maryland NEM customers have two ways to handle excess generation credits. The first option is called "Twelve-Month Period," where any excess gets cashed out in April every year, based on the billing cycle and the annual average electricity wholesale rate. The other one is "Indefinite Method," where credits keep rolling forward indefinitely. A customer will only get paid out if they switch to the Twelve-Month option or close their account. [83]
Every IOU's such as Baltimore Gas and Electric (BGE), Potomac Electric Power Company (PEPCO), Delmarva Power & Light, Potomac Edison, (all 3 are part of Exelon Group**)** and co-ops like Southern Maryland Electric Cooperative (SMECO) must offer NEM to their consumers.
Massachusetts - Net Metering in Massachusetts operates under M.G.L. Chapter 164, Sections 138-140, with the Department of Public Utilities handling the implementation and operation through 220 CMR 18.00. [84] Major IOUs, such as Eversource, National Grid, and Unitil, must offer NEM to eligible customers. Municipal utilities aren't obligated to offer it, but can participate voluntarily. [85]
Massachusetts has three categories of Net Metering facilities with selected caps - Class I, II, and III. Class I covers any generating system up to 60 kW. Class II includes systems between 60 kW and 1 MW that generate electricity from solar, wind, and agricultural energy. [85] Class III facilities are systems with a capacity greater than 1 MW and up to 2 MW. There's also a Small Hydroelectric Net Metering Program with its own statewide cap of 60 MW. [84]
Credits usually can be carried forward to the next month indefinitely.
Michigan - Historically, Michigan used to have a "Net Metering" program supported under the 2008 Clean, Renewable, and Efficient Energy Act of Michigan (Act 295 of 2008). However, in 2016, Michigan approved a new law to phase out pure net metering and directed the MPSC to study a more nuanced "inflow/outflow" billing mechanism. [86] The MPSC council took two years to evaluate the new billing mechanism, and in 2018, it implemented a Distributed Generation Program.
Under this Distributed Generation program, the Inflow / Outflow mechanism operates differently from NEM. Utilities use a digital smart meter, which documents separate inflow and outflow readings. The Inflow or grid-import readings are billed at the retail rate, whereas the excess grid-export or Outflow readings are billed at a utility-specific avoided cost rate credited each month. [90]
Utilities following MPSC rules began phasing out traditional NEM from 2018 onwards. Depending on the utility-specific scenarios, existing customers were grandfathered for up to 10 years (their cap is <20 kW) [87]. Major IOU's in Michigan, including DTE Electric Company, Consumers Energy, Indiana Michigan Power (I&M), Alpena Power Company, Northern States Power Company, Holland Board of Public Works, and Upper Michigan Energy Resources Corporation (UMERC), offer the DG program to their customers. Over 90% of households in Michigan are served by Consumers Energy and DTE Energy. NEM remains available only through Upper Michigan Energy Resources Corporation, Cloverland Electric Coop, Alpena Power Company, Ontonagon County REA, and Xcel Energy - these are small-scale co-op and municipal utilities. [87]
A new system size limitation was established in 2023 under a new Public Act 235. Michigan raises the maximum system size for its Distributed Generation program to 550 kW (from 150 kW earlier). As per the MPSC data, DG program installations reached 189,680 kilowatts (kW) in 2023 [88]. Also, there is a usage-based cap where systems must not exceed 110% of the customer's documented annual electricity consumption from the preceding 12-month period. [89]
As per the outflow energy tariff data gathered from Palmetto, DTE Energy pays approx $0.085 per kWh for off-peak exports and about $0.14 per kWh during summer peak hours. Consumers Energy pays between $0.09 to $0.16 per kWh based on season and ToD. Indiana-Michigan Power pays $0.12 per kWh, while Lansing Board of Water & Light gives somewhere around $0.08 per kWh plus a bonus of 1.3 cents per kWh for the first five years. [91]
In May 2023, two new modified bills, SB 362 [92] and SB 363 [93], were introduced and sent to the Senate Committee on Energy & Environment. These bills suggested several aspects, like eliminating the modified net metering and restoring true net metering, removing the cap on system capacity, and increasing or removing the cap on DG participation and providing for “fair value tariffs,” etc. [94] They have not been passed into law yet.
Minnesota - For Minnesota, both Net Metering and Net Billing co-exist. They refer to the traditional Net Billing as a “Simultaneous Purchase and Sale” arrangement. Both mechanisms are governed by state law (Minn. Stat. § 216B.164).[95]
The traditional 1:1 Net Metering only applies to systems under 40 kW AC. Larger systems (up to 1 MW for investor-owned utilities) and 40 kW AC systems for cooperative and municipal utility members fall under "Simultaneous Purchase and Sale" pricing. A ToD pricing is also applicable for system sizes between 40 kW and 100 kW AC for cooperative and municipal utility members. [96] Customers can choose how they receive compensation. It is basically based on their solar array type under the uniform statewide contract, either by check, bill credit, or banked credits for future use. [97]
Though the exact "Simultaneous Purchase and Sale" pricing data is limited and changes from time to time, we tried to compile some of it. The "Simultaneous Purchase and Sale Billing Rate" of Ottertail Power Company is approximately $0.063 per kWh in summer $0.066 per kWh in winter - the rate applicable for systems up to 1MW AC capacity.For systems less than or equal to 40 kW, the approximate rate is $0.081 per kWh in summer and $0.084 per kWh in winter. [98] Connexus Energy (a co‑op) offers a purchase rate $0.039 - $0.042 per kWh for systems under 40 kW [99]. Minnesota Power offers a uniform rate of $0.069 per kWh for any system. [100] People’s Energy Cooperative offers an approximate rate of $0.068 per kWh. [101]
Mississippi - Mississippi refers to its solar compensation policy as "Net Metering" in the official documents, particularly in the Mississippi Renewable Energy Net Metering Rule. But the catch is, the arrangement works more closely with Net Billing. The rule took effect on December 3, 2015, and major IOUs began rolling out in the billing from August 2016 onwards. [102] [103]
Renewable system owners receive credit for excess generation at a wholesale rate plus a Distributed Generation Benefits Adder (currently $0.025/kWh). An additional 2-cent bonus was offered for the first 1,000 qualifying low-income customers. All unused credits roll over indefinitely. To participate, household systems have a cap - either a system size of <20 kW (DC) or 110% of the prior year's annual peak demand (whichever is less). [104] Non-residential consumers can join the program, but with a system cap of 2 MW or 110 % of their annual peak demand. [105]
The Net Metering rules only apply to two main IOU's - Entergy Mississippi and Mississippi Power Company, including Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), as co-op or municipal utilities are not obliged.Entergy Mississippi's current wholesale rate is around $0.03 per kWh, and Mississippi Power Company offers around $0.032 per kWh (on-peak season) and $0.028 per kWh (off-peak season). [106] [107]
In July, the Mississippi PSC revised its net metering and interconnection regulations through an amendment. The "Net Metering Rule" is now officially called "Net Renewable Generation Rules". They retained the benefits adder (2.5 cents/kWh) of distributed generators with a 25-year grandfather provision, extended the net benefits adder to low-income households, and changed the DC to AC benefits rating of the distributed generators.[108]
Missouri - Missouri also has a Net Metering program in effect, which abides by Section 386.890, titled Net Metering and Easy Connection Act of the MPSC rule. Consumers with PV systems up to 100 kW can have a net metering deal [109]. The municipal utilities can select larger limits; nevertheless, they must state clear rules [110]. Although the rulebook refers to it as Net Metering, it operates more like a hybrid system.
Consumers with PV systems of 10 kW or less do not need to purchase additional liability insurance. The law does provide caps on how much net metering is available, so it is offered on a first-come, first-served basis until the caps are met [109]. The cap is generally 5% of the single-hour peak load of the selected utility in the preceding year. [110]. The NEG credits of a system expire after 12 months if they remains unused, and upon converting it, the customer can expect a rate the same as the utility-specific wholesale or avoided-cost rate [111].
Every utility should offer Net Metering to qualifying customers. Missouri's major IOU's including Ameren, Evergy Missouri Metro, Evergy Missouri West, Liberty Utilities, etc, as well as municipal utilities like Marshall Municipal Utilities and co-op utilities like Southwestern Electric Co‑op, etc, are the major drivers of the NEM program.
If we talk about utility-specific avoided cost or wholesale rates for NEG compensation, Ameron pays $0.038 per kWh in Summer and $0.033 per kWh in Winter, whereas Liberty Utilities pays approx $0.033 per kWh for both seasons [112] [113].
Montana -Montana has followed a retail Net Metering mechanism since July 1999. At the time of implementation, two major IOU in Montana, NorthWestern Energy (NWE) and Montana-Dakota Utilities (MDU), had to offer NEM to their qualifying customers. Municipal or co-op utility participation was voluntary at the same time.Later, the co-ops developed NEM regulations on a 2001 draft agreement. According to Montana's DEQ, all electric co-ops in the state have voluntarily adopted the policy. Montana doesn't have any limit on enrollment or a statewide installed capacity specified. [114] For both residential and commercial consumers, system size is capped at 50 kW. Excess credits roll over monthly but may expire annually, depending on the utility. [115]
On 26 Nov 2019, NorthWestern Energy tried to introduce a plan to abandon net metering, offer a separate rate class, and impose a demand charge on rooftop solar customers, but it never actually made it out of committee. [116] Again in 2023, House Bill 643 (HB 643) was introduced during the 2023 legislative session, seeking to revise net metering laws with nearly the same proposals made in 2019. Eventually, the bill failed to become law. [117] Since then, no new draft or House Bill has been made.
Nebraska - Nebraska has a state-mandated Net Energy Metering rule in place, established by the Nebraska Legislative Bill 436 in 2009. Exactly like Alaska, Nebraska has the same systems cap (up to 25 kW) to participate in the NEM program. Utilities have to continue offering NEM to their customers until the combined capacity reaches 1% of the utility's average monthly peak demand. After reaching the cap, they can either increase their cap or stop offering it to new customers. [118] Nebraska has no electric IOU's till now - all of the electric utilities are completely public (exception for gas-based system). [119]
Like Alaska, Nebraska's NEM policy is also acts like Net Billing, where NEG gets credited to the customer account at the avoided cost rate or NEG credit rate defined by the utility. Credit carries over monthly and gets paid out completely at the end of an annual period. [120]
Nebraska’s major utilities are Nebraska Public Power District (NPPD), Omaha Public Power District (OPPD), and Lincoln Electric System (LES). Beyond these three, electricity distribution is done by over 100 other local entities.
Nebraska Public Power District offers a monetary credit for NEG for PV generation of $0.052 per kWh (winter) and $0.087 per kWh (summer). [121] Lincoln Electric System pays based on the avoided cost rate, which keeps changing with season, peak timing, and year. We estimated an average cost of approximately $0.029 per kWh. [122]Omaha Public Power District offers NEG credit rates, defined $0.035 per kWh (winter) and $0.040 per kWh (summer). [123] If we talk about local small-scale utilities, Southern Public Power District offers an avoided power cost rate of $0.027 per kWh, and Norris Public Power District offers a monetary credit for NEG for PV generation of $0.043 per kWh (winter) and $0.058 per kWh (summer). [124] [125]
Nevada - Nevada's Net Metering program has a rich history of rise and fall. Nevada passed its first net metering law (NRS 704.766 et seq.) on July 1, 2007. During its initial days, the maximum system size was under 10 kW and a low aggregate participation cap (only 100 customers). [126] After successful implementation, the law was modified or amended multiple times. For example, in 2003, the maximum system capacity was modified to 30 kW, and by 2011, the capacity reached 1 MW. [127] [128] Generally, Net Metering and other incentives in Nevada are administered by the Public Utilities Commission of Nevada (PUCN) and the state's largest utility, NV Energy. [129] Local co-op and Municipal participation are voluntary.
Towards the end of 2015, the rooftop solar market in the state of Nevada entered a dramatic turning point with a new mandate that led it to the so-called "Nevada Net Metering Crisis". This crisis came with a Net Billing-type requirement that changed NEG credit rates to wholesale rates instead of retail rates. Under Senate Bill 374, the Nevada PUC granted new tariffs for Net Metering clients of NV Energy. The bill incorporated two controversial aspects. Firstly, the drastic reduction in payment on excess electricity, and secondly, the significant increase in the fixed monthly service charge on all solar customers over the next 12 years. The consequence and aftermath were massive. Major solar companies like Sunrun laid off their employees and ceased operations, citing economic challenges. The outrage of NEM consumers led to intense backlash, lawsuits, and strong campaigns to restore the old rates. [130]
As soon as the Nevada Legislature passed Assembly Bill 405 (AB 405) on June 6, 2017, the two-year-long crisis came to an end. AB 405 came up with some resolutions, including 20-year grandfathering for customers who interconnected their system before December 2015 and a tiered rate structure compensation for new customers (starting at 95% of the retail rate and eventually stepping down to a floor of 75%). As soon as the law was implemented, major companies like SolarCity and Sunrun announced their service back to Nevada. [131]
We already mentioned earlier that AB 405 reinstated net metering but introduced a tiered credit structure for excess generation. As more solar capacity gets added statewide, the export credit declines through different tiers: 95% of the retail rate for the first tranche (roughly the first 80 MW), 88% of the retail rate for the next tier, 81% for the following tier, and a 75% floor after that (as cumulative deployment hits 80 MW increments0 [132] The tier rate is applicable only for ≤ 25 kW systems. For system sizes more than 25 kW and up to 1 MW, export credit rates are defined by utilities and subject to additional costs. [133] As of 2025, all new customers enrolling in the program are falling under Tier 4 (75%). Be it Tier 1 or 4, customers can lock their rates for 20 years from the date of interconnection, until any further changes appear. [134] Before August 2015, the State of Nevada had a state-wide net metering cap of 235 MW. However, NV Energy has removed any limit on its net metering program. [135]
If we talk about the current NEG rates for NV Energy, it is approximately $0.079 per kWh for new (tier-4) customers. Surprisingly, systems with more than 25 kW capacity still receive the full retail rate. [136] Unused credits roll over monthly, but a customer can’t cash them out.
Recently, in September 2025, the Public Utilities Commission of Nevada, or PUCN, approved some changes proposed by NV Energy. New customers onboarding with Sierra Pacific Power Co. (NV Energy's South Nevada wing) on or after October 1st will shift from monthly netting to 15-minute interval netting. [137] Moreover, all residential and small commercial customers under the Nevada Power Co. (NV Energy's North Nevada wing) would have to bear a mandatory daily demand charge, effective from April 1, 2026. [138]
New Hampshire - New Hampshire has a Net Metering program in effect, with some modifications - typically involving hybrid systems or modified net billing. The NEM law was enacted on 25th August, 1998, and the rules became effective in 2001, starting with a system capacity of <25 kW. [139] The New Hampshire Public Utility Commission oversees the whole program and controls utilities. Between 2000 and 2010, some amendments were added to the RSA 362-A:9 policy (NEM policy), including the modification of system size up to 100 kW, standardizing the kWh credit method, excess generation credits rollover system, etc. [140] Passed in 2012, the House Bill 2012 raised the statewide net metering capacity cap based on the 2010 peak load of each utility. In 2016, they raised the statewide utility cap to 100 MW (50 MW for the top 4 IOU) [141] and introduced two tiers for classifying customers: "Small" systems that define a cap of up to 100 kW and "Large" systems that define a cap between 100 kW and 1 MW. [142] In 2017, PUC passed Order 26-029, ordering a new tariff system, particularly in the context of larger systems (size more than 100 kW) - crediting the excess generation at a rate near the avoided cost or utility specified costs, applicable only for new customers. Also, older customers were grandfathered under retail NEM until December 31, 2040. New customers for both segments would also pay some defined charges each month and would receive credits as a monetary benefit. The statewide caps were removed too! [143]
The largest four utilities in Hampshire, such as Eversource, Unitil, Liberty Utilities (IOUs) and NHEC (member-owned co-op), are the backbone of the state's NEM policy. New Hampshire has no local or municipal-operated utility companies.
New Jersey - New Jersey has a state-mandated true Net Metering program that applies uniformly for all utilities across the state.
In 2001, the New Jersey Board of Public Utilities (or NJBPU) adopted the first draft copy of the NEM program, and in September 2004, they adopted the final rule. [144] Senate Bill 2936 amended and implemented the NEM program in January 2008. Assembly Bill 3520 was amended in January 2010, which removed the max system size cap (earlier it was 2MW) [145] Currently, to enroll in the NEM program, users have to design their system in such a way that it does not exceed their annual electricity consumption. The net excess generation credits carry over monthly, and at the end of the year, unused credit gets cash out at the utility-specific avoided cost. [146]
Major utilities such as Atlantic City Electric Co., Public Service Electric & Gas Co. (PSE&G), Rockland Electric Co., New Hampshire Electric Cooperative (NHEC), Jersey Central Power & Light Co., etc, must offer Net Metering to their customers.
New Mexico - New Mexico currently offers a Modified Net Energy Program under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act, or PURPA Act, established in 1978. All utilities (except municipal utilities are unregulated), subject to PRC jurisdiction, must offer the program to their qualified customers. As of now, no statewide aggregate cap has been set by the New Mexico PRC (Public Regulation Commission) on the total capacity of aggregate systems to participate in the program. [147]
There are two tiers defined: customer‑sited systems up to 10 kW (for most households), and large systems can be sized up to 80 MW (subject to PURPA eligibility). The larger cap can define commercial, industrial, government, and agricultural customers. [148]
For customers with smaller systems (up to 10 kW), utilities usually offer the net excess generation credit mechanism in two different processes. Either the unused kWh credits are charged against the customer's account and carried into the future to offset their utility bills, or the utility can pay for the excess energy at its energy rate (commonly based on the avoided cost rate or a percent of the retail rate - utility-specific rules). [149] And for systems over 10 kW (up to 80 MW), a utility can buy that excess generation at the ToU or single-period energy rate defined by the purchasing utility. [150]
Major IOU's in New Mexico, including Public Service Company of New Mexico (PNM Resources), Xcel Energy, and El Paso Electric Company, as well as minor co-ops like Jemez Mountains Electric Cooperative and **Lea County Electric ** Cooperative, offers the NEM program to qualifying facilities.
For example, Jemez Mountains Electric Cooperative pays for NEG at their avoided cost for customer-generation systems of up to 30 KW. [151] The current rate of avoided cost or NEG is approximately $0.023 per kWh. [152] Public Service Company of New Mexico (PNM Resources) offers only the kWh credit policy for small generation. [153] Another co-op, Lea County Electric Cooperative pays for NEG at a fixed charge for customer-generation systems of up to 25 KW.[154] The current rate for exported energy buy-out is $0.077 per kWh and above that, they also charge a coule of extra fees per month. [155] Xcel Energy does the exact of PNM Resources but it did not define any system size limit. [156] New York - The excess generation export and netting policy in the state of New York is somewhat complex. Currently, New York is in transition to the retail NEM with VDER-tariffs that is market-based and captures the actual value of solar energy to the network. There is no statewide mandate requiring every utility in New York to offer net metering or VDER - only IOUs are required to do that. Yet there is an exception that we would talk about later on.
The original net metering law was passed in New York (Public Service Law SS 66-j) in 1997. It mainly utilized the law on residential solar systems with a maximum of 10 kW, which provided a full retail netting. [165] In 2006, further modifications in the system limit raised the cap to 25 kW for households and 200 kW for business customers (later it got upgraded to 750 kW). [166] The NY Sun initiative, launched in 2012, aimed to triple solar capacity through incentives and financing was a major driver to see a boost in rooftop solar installation and subsequently Net Metering installation across NY. [167] But with the growth in NEM customers, utilities and regulators faced some relevant crises and started arguing with NYPSC that full retail-rate net metering doesn't accurately reflect the “true value” of distributed energy. NYPSC, or the New York Public Services Commission, took these arguments seriously and created the VDER (Value of Distributed Energy Resources) tariff or Value Stack on September 14, 2017. [168]
The term VDER might sound odd or humongous, right? Let us define this for you. In VDER, customers are offered a financial credit that carries over to subsequent billing months. The credit is known as the Value Stack Tariff or VEDR Tariff, which depends on the time and place where the electricity is delivered. This form of net excess generation compensation is calculated by five factors: energy value, capacity, environmental benefits, demand reduction, and locational value. VEDR began replacing traditional net metering for new large systems and community solar projects while residential systems were still out of the cliffhanger. [169]
Talking about the current situation, residential solar and other similar systems up to 25 kW are still eligible to attach under traditional net metering (farm systems up to 2 MW) for upto 20 years or they can opt for VEDR - purley customer’s choice and depending on utility. For NEM customers, unused credits can be carried forward to subsequent months. After expiry of a 12-month cycle, any unused credits left are cashed out at avoided cost. [170] Plus, a recent change (in 2022) added a new rate for the Net Metering customers called the Customer Benefit Contribution (CBC) charge, which depends on the size of the system in kilowatts for new NEM customers. [171] Residential customers who have been installed prior to January 1, 2020 will also have a 20-year choice of either the Value Stack or the standard net metering. [172] [173] If a household or small business customer voluntarily opts for the VEDR tariff (even for a C&I system up to 5 MW), what would be the scenario for them? VEDR customers typically receive monetary credit, and they may not roll indefinitely or may have different payout rules - everything depends upon the utility. [174]
Major IOUs in New York, including Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Con Edison), New York State Electric & Gas Corporation (NYSEG), Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corporation (Central Hudson), Orange & Rockland Utilities, Inc. (O&R), and National Grid (NY), offer both Net Metering and VEDR for eligible customers.
For Orange & Rockland Utilities, we have calculated an approximate rate of Value of Distributed Energy Resources or Value Stack Credit, which stands at **0.322 per kWh (for summer months). [175]
Remember, we mentioned about an exception at the start of the topic? Long Island province in New York is a bit of an exception here. The Long Island Power Authority (LIPA) owns the transmission and distribution infrastructure, but PSEG Long Island (a private entity) actually runs the grid under contract. Even though LIPA is a municipal authority, PSEG Long Island operates like an investor-owned utility and is the only utility in the region.
PSEG Long Island's net metering policy closely resembles the state's exact net metering law, with some changes in system size requirements. And most importantly, they don't have a VEDR and Customer Benefit Contribution (CBC) charge in effect. The system size cap for residential solar is up to 25 kW (or 110% of annual usage), for farms up to 100 kW, and non-residential systems up to 5 MW. [176]
North Carolina - Historically, North Carolina used to run a standard 1:1 NEM service. The program was primarily intended for Duke Energy customers (ie, DEC and DEP). In 2003, House Bill 872 introduced the 1:1 Billing Mechanism, which also defined the standard qualifying criteria and system sizing for customers having their own renewable systems. [1] At that time, the mandatory facility sizes were ≤ 20 kW for residential, ≤ 100 kW for commercial, and for farms, it was ≤ 1 MW. [177] In 2005, the North Carolina Utilities Commission (or NCUC) established formal rules. [178] They also introduced an aggregate cap of 0.2 % of the peak load of a utility, yet removed it in March 2009. [178] Please note, only two IOU’s in North Carolina, specifically Duke Energy and Dominion Energy, have to follow the rules, as municipal or co-ops are not regulated.
All was going fine until House Bill 951, named "Energy Solutions for North Carolina," passed in October 2021, which instructed the NCUC to look into and revise the current Net Metering structure and payout rules only for Duke Energy. [179] NCUC implemented a final order for revising the current Net Metering structure to a new payout system for excess generation by Docket E-100, Sub 180.4. The old Net Metering regime comes to an end for new customers as of September 30, 2023. Yet, existing customers got to stay on the old system - locked in until December 2023. [180] On the contrary, Dominion Energy still offers its own 1:1 retail Net Metering system. [181]
Under the new modified Net Metering tariff regime, the NCUC proposed two new billing structures for two different categories. The first one is Rider NMB, which stands for Rider Net Metring Bridge. New solar customers onboarded into the modified regime from October 1, 2023, would be offered to transit under the rider NMB scheme first (particularly those who are not yet ready to accept TOU rates). [180] Also, customers grandfathered into traditional NEM will be automatically transferred to Rider NMB for 12 years after the date of grandfathering ends. [182] The Rider NMB rate consists of a flat residential rate (no TOU) for imported energy, a non-bypassable charge, customer and distribution energy charges, and the NEG is compensated at the utility-specific avoided cost rate. The second one is Rider RSC or Residential Solar Choice, which would be the permanent tariff. The RSC is quite similar to NMB, but the basic difference is that it requires a combination of ToU and Critical Peak Pricing (CPP)-based rate for imported energy from the grid. Eventually, all the customers under the Rider NMB scheme would be transitioned into the Rider RSC slowly post 2026. [182] For both NMB and NSC, the system size is now capped at 10 kW for residential and up to 100 kW AC for non-residential. Beyond that, one can connect a system up to 5 MW, but it attracts specific regulations and special charges.[183] For both systems, unused credits carry out to the next bill monthly and are cashed out (at avoided cost) at the end of a defined year.
Duke Energy offers a NEG credit rate of $0.045 per kWh for NMB and RSC customers [184] [185], subject to adding other fees defined by the rider guide itself.
North Dakota - North Dakota refers to its solar compensation policy as "Net Metering" in official documents, established in 1991 by the Public Service Commission. But the system closely resembles the Net Billing approach method. The policy is exclusively available to the qualifying customers of IOU's, like Northern States Power Company (Xcel Energy), Montana-Dakota Utilities, and Otter Tail Power Company. Municipal and co-ops are not mandated to follow the guidelines. [186]
Systems up to 100 kW in capacity are eligible to be onboarded. Renewable system owners receive credit for excess generation at an avoided cost rate set by utilities. There is no specified statewide limit on the aggregate capacity of all net-metered systems.[187] Unused credits roll over monthly but get credited to the customer's account after 12 months.
As per the source, Montana-Dakota’s currently effective avoided cost rate is $0.026 per kWh [188], whereas Otter Tail Power Company offers $0.043 per kWh [189]. Xcel Energy has different payout scenarios for different peak hours and qualifying facilities, yet the average cost of paying for NEG is somewhere around $0.03 - $0.035 per kWh combined. [190]
Ohio - The Ohio law uses the term “Net Metering," but actually, it resembles net billing more closely. The Public Utilities Commission of Ohio (or PUCO) adopted a rule (4901:1-10-28), which was the primary driver for implementing Net Metering for Ohio's IOUs in early 2002. [191] Rules are mandated for investor-owned utilities (IOUs); participation for municipal and co-op utilities is voluntary. [192]
For qualifying for Ohio's NEM, customers must size their system in such a way that it does not exceed 120 % of their historic peak annual electricity usage. Ohio has no fixed statewide cap right now. [193] For hospitals with their own renewable systems, there is no system size rule. [194] For net excess generation, the credit rate varies by utility (often termed as generation rate). The NEG acts as monetary credit, typically rolled over to offset future bills.
All the major utilities in Ohio, including American Electric Power (AEP), Duke Energy Ohio, Dayton Power & Light (“DP&L” part of AES), Ohio Edison Company, The Toledo Edison Company, and Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, etc, offer Net Metering to their qualifying customers.
Oklahoma - The state of Oklahoma has a Net Metering policy in place, which closely follows Net Billing-like adaptation. The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 introduced terms and conditions for the Oklahoma Corporation Commission (OCC) so that they can roll out NEM. At the time, the net metering capacity limit was 100 kW. [195] Senate Bill 1456 in 2014 permitted the utilities to impose fixed charges on customer-generators that joined the net-metering program on or after November 1, 2014. In 2019, the OCC re-reviewed its net-metering regulations, increasing the maximum size of the system to 300 kW. [195] The rules mandated for IOU’s and co-op utilities, as municipal and rural ERCs are not under scrutiny.
The program is available to both residential and small commercial customers with a maximum allowed capacity of 300 kW, but requires that an installation not exceed 125% of the recorded peak load. [196] Any system bigger than that might have other rules. [198] The net excess energy generated by the system is credited at the utility-specific avoided cost of energy. [197] The credit obtained through net excess generation is usually carried forward to the following month, which covers the subsequent bills. These credits may continue until the end of an annual true-up, but the details may differ by utility. [196] No statewide aggregate capacity exists.
Three Oklahoma-based major IOU's such as Oklahoma Gas & Electric (OG&E), Public Service Company of Oklahoma (PSO), Liberty Utilities, and Co-Ops like Oklahoma Electric Cooperative (OEC), Kiamichi Electric Cooperative, Western Farmers Electric Cooperative, Ozarks Electric Cooperative, and Northeast Oklahoma Electric Cooperative (NOEC), offer NEM to their qualifying customers.
The Public Service Company of Oklahoma (PSO) provides NEG credit at an avoided cost rate, which is approximately $0.04 per kWh (On-Peak) and $0.032 per kWh (Off-Peak). [199] Oklahoma Electric Cooperative and Western Farmers Electric Cooperative offer the same at $0.031 per kWh. [200] The avoided cost rate for Northeast Oklahoma Electric Cooperative (NOEC) is approximately $0.03 per kWh.[201]
Oregon - The state of Oregon has a state-wide mandate for NEM offering, meaning all the utilities, no matter whether it is IOU or COU, or municipal-owned utility, all of them must comply with the rules. In Oregon, the statute ORS 757.300 implements the NEM rules, as the Oregon Department of Energy (ODOE) oversees the operation. [202]
In 1999, Oregon’s legislature passed HB 3219, which mandated Net Metering offerings for customers with their own renewable energy systems up to 25 kW. [203] The rule was upgraded in 2007, allowing non-residential systems to be capped at up to 2 MW for IOU customers. But for municipal, co-ops, or consumer-owned utility (COUs), the statutory 25-kW cap was not removed unless a local body decides otherwise.[204]
The aggregate capacity limit now stands at 0.5% of the utility's historic single-hour peak load. The excess generation credit system or NEG crediting mechanism differs completely in Oregon. IOU's use a full retail credit, to be precise, the true net metering system, whereas COUs, co-ops, and Municipal utilities buy this NEG at utility-specific avoided cost. IOU’s do not offer monetary credit for NEGs, yet allow them to offset future bills. For all utility jurisdictions, unused NEG credits lapse after 12 months for normal customers, and low-income assistance customers can sell them to utilities at a specific avoided cost. [205]
Major IOU's like Portland General Electric (PGE), PacifiCorp (operating as Pacific Power in Oregon), and Idaho Power, as well as COUs (co-ops and muncipal) like Umatilla Electric Cooperative (UEC), Oregon Trail Electric Cooperative, Central Electric Cooperative, Central Lincoln People's Utility District, Northern Wasco County People's Utility District, Eugene Water & Electric Board (EWEB), and The Springfield Utility Board (SUB) offers NEM to thier qualifying customers.
Pennsylvania - Pennsylvania has a rich history regarding its implication in establishing Net Meeting services. In 1996, Pennsylvania started to reform its electricity market with the Electricity Generation Customer Choice and Competition Act, which casually sparked the theory of net metering. The Alternative Energy Portfolio Standards (AEPS) Act of 2004 was enacted and ordered to adopt Net Metering rules formally and mandated IOU's to offer the same to their customers. [206] Finally, in 2006, the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission (PUC) issued formal net metering regulations (codified in the Pennsylvania Code), which became effective on December 16. [207] Plus, the PUC also defined the maximum nameplate system size cap for residential and non-residential consumers, which is 50 kW and 3 MW, respectively. [208] Again, in 2016, a major amendment happened where the non-residential system cap got an upgrade in system size up to 5 MW, and microgrid services were allowed to enter NEM programs. [209] After that, since 2017, no major statutory changes have been made.
If we talk about the billing mechanism, Pennsylvania offers a true Net Metering framework. We have already mentioned the system size limit for qualifying for the Net Metering program earlier. Systems with a nameplate capacity of 500 KW or more must receive prior approval from the PUC to opt for NEM. Any net excess generation or NEG credit is carried forward and charged to the customer in the following bill at the entire retail kWh rates. At the year-end, the unused NEG is paid out at the utility-specific price-to-compare rate. This price-to-compare is based solely on the generation and transmission portion of the utility retail rate. [210]
Major Pennsylvania-based IOU's such as **PECO (formerly Philadelphia Electric Company), PPL Electric Utilities (**formerly Pennsylvania Power and Light Company), West Penn Power, Duquesne Light, and UGI Utility must offer NEM to their qualifying customers. Municipal utilities and rural electric cooperatives are not required to offer net metering. Pennsylvania’s deregulated electricity market has an Alternative Electricity Supplier (AES) mechanism in place, which also does not guarantee a net-metering program for its customers. [211]
Well, some recent legislative activities in Pennsylvania regarding Net Metering have attracted concern among customers. On January 12, 2024, State Senator Lisa Boscola and the Pennsylvania PUC introduced Senate Bill 1040, which sought to eliminate commercial-scale net metering. Also, the bill proposed a 500 MW utility-specific cap on the total amount of net metered energy, and sought to add a barrier by limiting net metering to 110% of a customer's annual energy consumption. [212] Thankfully, the bill has not passed yet and died in committee. [213]
We have already mentioned earlier that the unused NEG gets credited into the customer's account at year-end by calculating with the utility-specific Price to Compare or PTC rate. PECO's PTC rate, effective June 1, stands approximately at $0.10 per kWh [214], whereas PPL Electric Utilities pays nearly $0.12 per kWh [215]. West Penn Power offers a PTC rate of approximately $0.103 per kWh [216], and UGI offers somewhere around $0.11 per kWh [217]. Duquesne Light Company's average Price to Compare rate stands at nearly $0.12 per kWh [218]. Other notable IOUs, such as Met-Ed and Penelec (FirstEnergy subsidiaries), offer a PTC rate of approx $0.115 per kWh and $0.11 per kWh, respectively [219] [220] Rhode Island - The net metering of Rhode Island is a state-wide program with some exceptions related to aggregate cap. The rules of eligibility and crediting are standardized and overseen by state law and regulated by the Rhode Island PUC. People with their own renewable systems in Rhode Island have two alternative options to sell excess solar energy: either go for Net Metering, or choose the Renewable Energy Growth (REG) Program. We will discuss them later on. Rhode Island is one of the few states in the USA that doesn't allow any system to comply with Net Metering or REG laws that are situated inside core forest areas.
The Rhode Island net metering program was established in 1985 under the Public Utility Commission Supplementary Decision and Order, Docket No. 1549. In the initial days, the programme was aimed towards very small-scale systems (up to 25 kW only). [221] In 2011, Rhode Island enacted net metering in Chapter 39, 26.4 of the General Laws (R. I. Gen. Laws SS 39 26.4). This law was subsequently amended to make system size adjustments and place a cap based on utility. First, on-site consumption was restricted to an average of 3 years, and installations were not permitted to generate more than 125% of that average. Each system was limited to 5 MW, and the total sum of all net-metered systems could not exceed 3% of the peak load of any utility (removed later for Narragansett Electric or RI Energy). [222] Further amendments in 2016 raised the system cap to 10 MW, and that's the current limit. [223]
The current Net Metering system in Rhode Island is kind of a hybrid arrangement where any excess generation gets credited to the customer's account at the utility-specific rate in the form of cashback. Still, utilities can't impose any additional cost similar to a Net Billing structure. If the customer's system produces more than 125% of their consumption, the utility is not obliged to buy or credit that extra. [224] Whether the credit could be carried forward or utilize an annual true-up, and even for unused credit treatment, it's an optional term for utilities [225]. We have mentioned earlier that there is no defined aggregate cap for RI Energy, but Block Island Power Company and Clear River Electric & Water District have an aggregate capacity of 15% and 3% of their peak load, respectively. [224]
Before going further into the Net Metering topic, let’s talk about the Renewable Energy Growth (REG) Program in a short. The REG program is an alternative program to Net Metering that is available only for RI Energy customers. As per 2025-based updates, the system size cap under the program for residential and small business solar is ≤ 25kW and comes with specific time-based terms. Depending on project size and term (15 or 20 years), RI Energy generally pays either $0.338 per kWh or $0.323 per kWh for solar generation. [226] One may think that, then why do residential customers still choose NEM over REG? It happens because enrollment in the program is seasonal and often stands hectic due to strict procedures. REG programs have strict deadlines, lower MW allocations, and strict documentation - isn't it hectic? If we talk about large-scale projects to qualify under the REG program, their size ceiling is up to 95 MW. But their interconnection and onboarding criteria are more congested and stricter than residential systems. [227] Still, over 7000 projects associated with their REG programes are receiving their incentives where most of the customers are small scale ceiling. [234]
Lets move back to Net Metering. Customers onboarded with the Net Metering program with RI Energy get an approximate $0.24 per kWh for households, and it differs significantly for non-residential classes. [228] They also offer unused credit roll-over and annual true-up cash-out at a certain rate. [229] Historically, the particular rate was valued at approximately $0.08 per kWh. [230]
Block Island Power Company customers get a fixed Net Meter credit of $0.14 per kWh, but their number of their net-metered customers is very limited (only 102). [231] They do not have a credit roll-over or true-up policy defined. The customers of Clear River Electric & Water District get the same rate for both annual true-up and excess generation, which is based on their “Power Supply Service” rate, and as of 2025, the rate is approximately $0.114 per kWh. [232] [233]
South Carolina - The State of South Carolina has a state-wide mandate, requiring every IOU in the state to offer Net metering programs to qualifying customers. Most utilities had a retail Net Metering program intact until 2019, but the South Carolina Energy Freedom Act marked a major shift in post-2020 scenarios.
South Carolina's Net Metering policy was established back in 2014 when the Distributed Energy Resource (DER) Program Act (Act 236) required the PSC to mandate statewide net metering standards. [235] Initially, the max cap for residential systems was 20 kW, and for non-residential consumers it was 1 MW or 100 % of the contract demand. [235] The program was limited to a first-come, first-served basis until the nameplate generating capacity of net-metered systems reached 2% of the past five years' average retail peak demand of the utility. For the initial days, the netting settlement used to follow the true 1:1 mechanism with the option to roll over credits to next month's bill with annual true-up cashout at the utility-specific avoided cost. [236] After the DER Program Act came into effect, the state started witnessing a surge in its NEM program, and ultimately, during 2018, utilities began hitting the 2% cap. Utilities temporarily stopped onboarding new customers and urged PSC to address the bottleneck. At this point, after looking at all those issues and addressing a permanent solution, the Energy Freedom Act was overwhelmingly passed by the South Carolina legislature on May 9, 2019. [237] The bill removed the 2% net metering cap, grandfathered existing retail NEM customers for 10 years, and asked the PSC to establish a new successor program for future customers. [238] Following the instructions, PSC designed a successor program to the original, full 1:1 retail rate net metering called “Solar Choice Metering Tariff" for new consumers interconnecting their system from June 1, 2021 [239] We will discuss them later on.
Customers who applied for the NEM program before mid-2019 or mid-2021 can keep this 1:1 retail credit until 2025 or 2029, depending on their enrollment date. [240] Grandfathered customers can carry forward unused NEG credits to subsequent months. At the time of the annual true-up, they can expect cashback at the avoided cost for any unused credit. [240]Depending upon the utility, they can even lapse. After the mentioned timeline expires, grandfathered NEM customers would be automatically switched to the Solar Choice Metering Tariff regime.
It’s time to unfold what Solar Choice Metering Tariff stands for. Let's have a look.
Earlier, we have already discussed the background and timeline for the same. Under the tariff, customers use TOU pricing for any energy imported from the grid. Some utilities also impose a minimum monthly bill. Under this tariff, the generation and consumption are usually netted within the different time windows each month. Any excess generation is compensated at the utility's avoided-cost rate. The system size is limited to 20 kW AC for residential and up to 1 MW for non-residential customers. [241] Moreover, their are some specific charges that can be added with the bill depending upon the utility specific regulations,
In South Carolina, major IOUs, like Dominion Energy South Carolina (DESC) and Duke Energy subsidiaries (Duke Energy Carolinas and Duke Energy Progress) offer the Solar Choice Tariffs to qualifying customers.
Under DESC, grandfathered NEM customers usually receive $0.03656 per kWh for any leftover credit during the annual true-up. [242] Under the Solar Choice Tariff, residential customers can roll over excess credits onto next month, but at the time of annual true-up, any unused credit will be paid out at the off‑peak winter energy credit rate. [243] The rate stands at $0.038 per kWh as of 2025. [244] Grandfathered NEM customers of Duke Energy subsidiaries receive $0.047 per kWh for any leftover credit during the annual true-up. [245] Solar Choice Tariff residential customers usually paid $0.0397 per kWh for any excess electriity sent to grid. [246] They do not have any carry-forward facility listed. For both utilities, users might pay extra charges such as basic facilities charges and grid access fees; moreover, they need to maintain a minimum monthly bill.
Consumers who opt-in for Solar Choice Tariff program usually gets a lock-in period to obtain legacy rates. For example, DESC customers can make use of these rates for 10 Years. [243]Duke subsidiaries also offers the same. [244] After that, the utility or PSC may modify the rates or renew the terms.
South Dakota - The State of South Dakota does not have a mandatory net metering policy. Utilities in the state may join the Net Metering, to be precise, Net Billing program, on their own discretion. The PUC only oversees the tariff proposals and interconnection requirements. There are no uniform rules determined by the PSC. Utilities can design their own Net Billing or similar type programs if they want to offer incentives for customers with a renewable system.
In 1979, the South Dakota PUC implemented early rules under the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), where utilities were obligated to purchase power from small renewable energy facilities at an avoided cost rate. [247] Since then, no larger reforms or major proposals have been introduced or made.
Let’s have a look at utility specific programs,
Black Hills Electric Cooperative buys excess power generated from qualifying facilities (defined in PURPA) at their avoided cost rate, which is only $0.0161 per kWh (for Eastern Grid) and $0.019 per kWh (for Western Grid) [248] Under the PURPA Act, the qualifying facility size is restricted to 80 MW. [249] Black Hills Energy offers the same buy-back type program, which is limited to systems up to 10 MW and pays customers for their excess generation at avoided cost. [250] As per the tariff filed by Black Hills Energy to PSC, the 2024 avoided cost rate is $0.0248 per kWh. [251] Montana-Dakota Utilities usually offers two plans under the excess energy purchase program, where the maximum system size stands at 100 kW. First one is a general program where they purchase any excess generation at $0.0279 per kWh (On-Peak) and $0.0275 per kWh (Off-Peak). [252] Another one is an occasional power purchase (utilities buy when needed) program, where the purchase rate is $0.0276 per kWh. [253] Xcel Energy South Dakota offers a buyback rate of $0.036 per kWh for systems upto 100 kW for occasional buyback programs [254]. Systems connected under their regular TOD buyback scheme, gets paid at a rate of $0,0476 per kWh for On-Peak times and $0.032 per kWh for Off-Peak times [254].
Tennessee - The State of Tennese don’t have any state-wide Net Metering rule and interconnection rules standardized mandatory in place.
Some investor-owned utilities operating under the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) service area offer similar buyback kind of programs. These alternative arrangements act more like Net Billing rather than classic net‑metering. [276]
Utilities operating under TVA offer a Dispersed Power Production (DPP) Program. The mechanism allows qualified facilities to sell all or excess generation to TVA at the avoided-cost / specified rate. Under the DPP program, the max system size cap is 80 MW (with a provision of upto 100 MW). [277] [278] As per a presentation displayed by TVA, the excess energy buy back rate is approx $0.025 per kWh and usually the same rate locks in for 5 Years and might continue afterward unless modified. [279] [280]
Some named utilities under TVA, like Memphis Light, Gas, and Water Division (MLGW), Powell Valley Electric Cooperative, Newport Utilities, and Volunteer Energy Cooperative (VEC), mention TVA’s DPP among the renewable options for their members.
Interestingly, a new bill, Senate Bill 1124 introduced in the Senate on February 6, 2025, which might mandate net metering disclosure for solar energy system installations [281]. The bill might signal a movement towards formally recognizing Net Metering throughout the state. But, as per "Legiscan", the bill is still in progress [282].
Texas - In the state of Texas, there is no formal Net Energy Metering (NEM) provision in effect as of 2025. Surprisingly, they had a Net Billing-like mechanism in place in 1986. As a result of the deregulation of Texas's electricity market, that program was gradually phased out indefinitely. Right now, utilities are not mandated to offer such programs to their customers. Some local electric providers, investor-owned utilities, and cooperatives offer alternative programs such as "solar buyback plans" for customer-generators.
In a relatively early phase of the history of renewable energy development, the Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUCT) implemented a Net Metering program in 1986. Under this Net Billing-type netting program, only investor-owned utility customers with up to 50 kW systems could apply for interconnection. Utilities used to compensate them at the utility-specific avoidable cost for any excess generation. Notably, the program did not limit participation by a statewide cap. [285] In 1999, the Texas Legislature introduced Senate Bill 7, which transformed Texas's electricity market by shifting from regulated utility monopolies to a competitive market of Retail Electric Providers (REPs) - practically deregulating the market. [286] It created a fragmented regulatory environment where utilities and REPs established their own net metering rules. Consequently, the 1986 net metering became less effective without a consistent statewide standard and was ultimately phased out within a few years.
Let’s have a look at utility specific programs,
Austin Energy residential customers can earn by exporting excess energy to the grid by joining the Value of Solar (VoS) tariff programme. The buy-back rate is $0.091 per kWh for systems up to 1MW AC and $0.072 per kWh for systems greater than 1MW AC. It applies to monthly billing, and credits can be carried forward indefinitely. There is no limit on how much energy can be sold. [287]
CPS Energy offers a "Net Metering" program that behaves closely to a Net Billing-like structure. The program does not have any system-specific or utility-specific capping. At the end of each billing period, CPS Energy pays the customer-generator for any excess generation at its avoided cost rate via a dollar credit [288]. Reportedly, these rates are approximately $0.016 per kWh in Winter and $0.020 per kWh in summer [289].
Energy Texas also has a buyback-type program module (unofficially Net Metering), where the maximum system size limit is 100 kW [290]. For excess generation exported to the grid, they pay a rate equal to the avoided cost as determined by "averaging the Off-Peak and Peak cents/kWh for 1MW from the Avoided Energy Cost Estimates" [291]. Reportedly, the 2024avoided cost was $0.031 per kWh [292].
Brownsville Public Utilities Board (BPUB) offers a Net Energy Metering model, which is actually a buyback mechanism in disguise [293] [294]. Customers with a renewable system sized within 50 kW can onboard [294]. Any excess power a customer exports to the grid, BPUB buys all at the current fuel and energy cost [293]. As per the official website, the November 2025 fuel and energy cost is approximately $0.038 per kWh [295].
In the 2002 General Session, the Legislature passed H.B. 7, which codified the Net Metering rules. At that time, residential systems were capped at 25 kW, and for non-residential, up to 2 MW in some cases. The law went into effect on June 05, 2002 [306]. During 2016, when Rocky Mountain Power witnessed a boom in rooftop solar additions and an increase in Net Metering applications, they wanted to address the cost-shifting issue. To remove the cost-shifting concern, a major settlement agreement between Rocky Mountain Power and regulators was filed in docket 14-035-114 in September 2017 [296]. As per the docket, the true net-metering program was shut down for new applicants post November 15. They also added a provision to keep grandfathering for legacy customers for 18 years (December 31, 2035). [297] The most important addition was the transition to the Net Billing program, effective November 1, 2020, for all new customers [298].
Currently, under the Net Billing policy for Rocky Mountain Power and Section 137, system size has not been changed (25 kW for residential and 2 MW for commercial). [299] They have no specific aggregate cap specified.
Other smaller electric cooperatives and municipal utilities may have their custom-designed sizing rules, aggregate cap, interconnection standards, and policy amendments.
For any excess generation sent to the grid, Rocky Mountain Power pays $0.057 per kWh (in summer) and $0.041 per kWh (in winter) to its Net Billing customers. [300] Excess credits can be carried forward to subsequent months, but if a customer does not use them before year-end, they will lapse.
If we take municipal and co-op utilities into account, Provo City Power offers $0.067 per kWh for excess generation with a monthly rollover and yearly lapse policy [301].Murray City Power offers true Net Metering, but with a different size cap - 10 kW for Residential and 500 kW for Commercial. [302] [303] Brigham City Public Power (BCPP) uses a Net Billing structure and pays $0.047 for excess generation [304]. Bountiful City Light & Power (BCLP) restricts the system size to 10 kW for any consumer and pays approximately $0.05 per kWh for excess generation [305].
Vermont - Vermont was one of the first three states in the U.S. to pass a net-metering law. The State has a statewide Net Metering program in effect for every utility, but there is no mandate for customers - they can participate voluntarily.
The Net Metering regime of Vermont takes us back to 1997, as the initial legislation was passed by statute 30 V.S.A. § 219a and with a capacity of 15 kW. [307] [308] With time, the law kept getting modified, and the system size cap was raised to 15kW in 2002, 250 kW in 2004, and 500 kW in 2011 but kept retail netting entact. [308] Meanwhile, in 2011, the Vermont Solar Adder was introduced into the Vermont Energy Act, which added a $0.20 per kWh bonus payment on top of retail rates (reduced and eventually removed later). [309] The decision helped boost the state's deployment of distributed solar and contributed to meeting renewable energy targets. To address the concern, the Energy Act of 2014 (Vermont Act 99) ordered the Vermont Public Utility Commission (replacing the Vermont Public Service Board) to design a new statewide net-metering program. [310] The PUC responded by putting a modified netting mechanism, which became effective on 1st January 2017. Under the modified structure, any excess generation is credited at a combined rate of base retail rate with REC and siting adjustors. It also defined the unused credit policy of "12-month carry-forward limit", which lapses at true-up [311]. Also, the current Net Metering structure comes with some utility-specific non-bypassable charges, such as the customer service charge, energy efficiency charge, electric assistance program fee, etc. Though legacy customers were grandfathered for 20 years. [311]
Post 2017, no major modification took place. But the Vermont law requires the Public Utility Commission to review net-metering rates every two years and adjust them in accordance with the market dynamics.
As we have mentioned earlier, the current system size to qualify for the Vermont Net Metering program is capped at 500 kW. We also defined the credit rollover policy. Before 2017, Vermont limited net-metered capacity to about 15% of a utility's peak demand (based on 1996 levels) [312]. Post the new Net Metering regime, there is no such modification left behind.
Vermont has only a single IOU, Green Mountain Power (GMP), that offers Net Metering to its customers. Other municipal or co-ops, such as Vermont Electric Cooperative (VEC), Burlington Electric Department, Lyndon Electric Department, and Stowe Electric Department (all municipals), have the same offerings.
For any excess generation sent to the grid by the Vermont Electric Cooperative (VEC) customers, they receive the blended residential rate of $0.181 per kWh. On top of that, new customers onboarded after 1st August 2024, would get $0.04 per kWh (<150 kW) and $0.07 per kWh (more than 150 kW but up to 500 kW) as a siting charge [313]. REC retention charges for them are now $0.04 per kWh.
Green Mountain Power (GMP) customers are receiving the blended residential rate of $0.183 per kWh. On top of that, they get a REC retention rate of $0.04 per kWh and a siting charge of approximately $0.06 per kWh (depending on tier and system size mentioned in interconnection rules). [314]
Lyndon Electric Department is a municipal utility that buys the excess generation at $0.135 per kWh. But a siting adjustor rate is debited following the type and size of the system (often up to $0.04 per kWh). [315]
Virginia - The State Corporation Commission (SCC) of Virginia mandates all utilities to offer a Net Metering program for their qualifying customers. Interestingly, municipal-owned electric utilities are not required to offer any netting program as they are not governed under SCC.
The Commonwealth of Virginia informally introduced a Net Metering program in early 2000, following the utility reorganization and restructuring legislation enacted in 1999 [316]. Initially, it was available to residential consumers with a maximum system size of 10kW and 25kW for non-commercial use (later 500 kW and 1 MW further). The entire program was limited to only 0.1 percent of the previous year's peak load, depending on the utility. [316] The SCC adopted formal Net Metering regulations on April 13, 2000, by order PUE-2009-00105 [317]. A further amendment took place in 2011 with House Bill 1983, which made two major changes: increased the residential system size limit to 25kW and added a standby charge for them [318].
The primary statutory provision regarding Net Metering in Virginia is codified by §56‑594, which prohibits systems that exceed the expected annual consumption based on the prior 12 months of billing data to qualify for Net Metering, and the overall cap was significantly increased to 6% of the utility's adjusted peak load (1% reserved for low income) - strictly for IOUs [319]. Later, House Bill 2547 was introduced in 2019, which offered the electric co-operatives to increase their net metering cap to 7% of the system peak [320]. In 2020, the Virginia Clean Economy Act (VCEA) was introduced in the legislative session, which was aimed at meeting the 2045 renewable goals [321]. In the act, the system size was increased further to 25 kW for most residential customers & 3 MW for nonresidential, and systems can be sized up to 150% of the customer’s previous 12-month consumption [322]. Since then, no major changes have been introduced.
Currently, Virginia offers a universal retail Net Metering law for regulated utilities. Credit for any excess generation is netted as kWh hours and can be carried forward to the subsequent bill for a year. During annual true-up, customers can choose either to get cash out at the avoided-cost rate (under jurisdiction of a utility) or, again, carry forward to the next billing up to a specific limit [323]. To sell this excess kWh banked, a customer needs to sign a PPA, depending on the utility.
Virginia's three investor-owned utilities, or IOU, such as Virginia Electric and Power Company (under Dominion Energy), Appalachian Power Company (APCo under AEP), and Kentucky Utilities Company, offer Net Metering to their consumers. Also, major co-ops like Craig‑Botetourt Electric Cooperative (CBEC), BARC Electric Cooperative, and Northern Virginia Electric Cooperative (NOVEC) offer the same.
Customers of Appalachian Power Company can sell their banked excess generation at a specified avoided cost, which is $0.026 per kWh as per the 2020 estimate [324]. For the Virginia Electric and Power Company, the PPA-specified purchase price is equal to the PJM DOMZONE day‑ahead annual simple average locational marginal price (LMP) for the most recent calendar year [325]. As per the Monitoring Analysis report, the average LMP of 2024 was $31.41 per MWh, which roughly converts $0.031 per kWh [326]. Kentucky Utilities Company has no such arrangement for its residential customers. Co-op utilities do not offer any PPA agreement for residential systems [327]. Well, there is an exception, as the Powell Valley Electric Cooperative does not participate in the Net Metering program.
In the broader context, APCo had filed a petition on August 30, 2024, for approval of revisions to its Net Meeting program. They had proposed a 70% rate reduction for excess generation instead of retail netting and switching to “real‑time netting” rather than annual banking [328]. However, the Virginia State Corporation Commission rejected it. [329]
Washington - The Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission (WTC) mandates all utilities to offer a true retail Net Metering program for their qualifying customers. The legislature has set a threshold limit and a date by which the utility customers will enjoy full benefits from their solar panels. Upon hitting the barrier, Washington might see major changes in their netting policies. We will discuss them later on.
Let's have a look at the history and development of the Net Metering program in Washington. The roots of Net Metering take us back to the 1990s. In 1998, the Washington Legislature passed Substitute House Bill 2773, which required utilities across the state to offer true net metering to their qualifying customers [330]. Initially, the system size cap is fairly small, limited to only 25 kW, and the overall program was capped at just 0.1% of a utility's 1996 peak demand [331]. The bill marked the beginning of net-metering in Washington, though the restrictive limitations keep participation relatively modest and prevent the program from gaining significant traction in its early years. The landscape began to shift in 2006 when Engrossed Substitute House Bill 2352 took effect on June 7. In this amendment, the law significantly increased the system size cap to 100 kW, allowing larger installations to participate in Net Metering [332]. Also, the law increased the cumulative capacity threshold to 0.5% of the utility's 1996 peak demand - opening the door for more widespread rooftop solar adoption. Further, they reserved 50% of the capacity for renewable energy projects [332].
A more substantial and transformative change arrives in 2019 with Engrossed Second Substitute Senate Bill 5223 (E2SSB 5223). This time, the threshold raised dramatically to 4.0% of the utility's 1996 peak demand, representing an 8x increase (it was 0.5% earlier) [333]. The bill also establishes a "first-come, first-served" and a deadline structure, where full retail net-metering must be offered until June 30, 2029, or until the cumulative generating capacity reaches 4% of the 1996 peak - whichever comes first [333]. Additionally, the bill allows utilities to propose "successor" or alternative tariffs once either threshold is reached, paving the way for potential policy evolution and adaptation to changing energy landscapes [334].
Regarding the current status, the retail netting program is still running successfully. Although some IOUs have reached the peak cap, and some co-ops have shifted to a new tariff scheme (coming to this point later). The max system size is capped at 100 kW (no further change since 2006). Customers can carry forward excess generation as kWh credits to the next bill, but during the annual true-up, any leftover credits would be forfeited. [335]
We have already mentioned earlier that every utility must offer true net metering to its qualifying customers until their specific peak hits. There is some rule-specific relaxation for non-IOU utilities (co-ops and municipal), but they need to comply with WTC regarding changes to their Net Metering programs.
Major investor-owned utilities in Washington, including Puget Sound Energy, Inc. (PSE), Avista Corporation, and Pacific Corp, offer Net Metering to their consumers. If we take the example of municipal and co-ops, there is the Snohomish County Public Utility District, Tacoma Power, Richland Energy Services, and Seattle City Light. Though some utilities like Orcas Power & Light Cooperative (OPALCo) and Kittitas County Public Utility District have shifted to lower compensation rates.
Investor-owned utility Puget Sound Energy (PSE) hit the 4% cap on June 30, 2024 [336]. But previously, during 2023, PSE filed with the Washington UTC to continue offering true Net Meeting to new customers until December 31, 2025, or until they come up with a successor tariff with a grandfathering provision - whichever comes first. [337] They have not yet announced the exact successor tariff. Another IOU, PacifiCorp, has also surpassed the threshold. On September 5, 2025, PacifiCorp filed for approval of Schedule 138, Net Billing service, which the company proposed as a successor program. [338] From their FAQ page, we can anticipate that the program might conclude on December 1, 2025, with a 25-year legacy grandfathering provision [339]. Though the exact tariff details are not clear yet.
Co-op utilities like Kittitas PUD have also exceeded the threshold a long time ago (during the 2020s) and already have a new tariff in effect. Right now, they allow systems up to 25 kW to interconnect and do not offer any kWh credit banking [340]. They buy any excess generation from customer-generators at a fixed rate of $0.033 per kWh. [341] OPALCO reached its 4% threshold and adopted a new rate structure in 2022. [336] Currently, under their new tariff named "Residential Distributed Energy Resource Service", OPALCO has removed the legacy grandfathering provisions, and any customer who generates excess energy can receive $0.087 per kWh for delivering to the grid [342]. The base buyout rate is $0.099 per kWh, subtracted by a grid access fee of $0.013 per kWh.
West Virginia - West Virginia has a statewide Net Energy Metering policy in effect, with a capacity exception depending upon the type of utilities. Until 2024, West Virginia had a full retail netting policy in effect, but in January 2025, the West Virginia PSC established Net Billing type rules for investor-owned utilities. As it's comparatively new, other types of utilities, such as rural bodies, co-ops, and small utilities (serving fewer than 30,000 residential customers), have yet to receive a new tariff mandate. They are still offering retail Net Metering for their qualifying consumers..
One can find West Virginia's Net Metering rule in West Virginia Code § 24-2F-9, part of the state's Alternative and Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard. [343] The law goes into effect July 1, 2009, allowing utilities to offer netting policies for customer generators. [344] The PSC followed up in 2010 with General Order No. 258, establishing the formal rules for Net Metering and interconnection on June 30. [344] A further modification was made by House Bill 2201 on March 12, 2015. The bill prohibited each utility from using retail net-metering tariffs to create cross-subsidization, limited total net-metering capacity to 3% (0.5% reserved for households) of the prior-year utility-specific peak demand, and introduced a "first-come, first-served" basis module for qualifying true Net Metering customers. [345] Yet again, a major modification took place in early 2024, as the PSC approved settlements for two large IOUs (Mon Power and Potomac Edison, both part of First Energy) regarding the excess energy crediting structure for new net-metering customers. [346] This formally introduced a net billing-like scheme with grandfathering options for legacy customers only for those two IOUs as of now.
For both Net Metering customers and new tariff customers under First Energy, the system size rules are the same and have not been modified since their introduction. For large IOUs (serving 30,000+ customers), the system size limit is 25 kW for Residential, 500 kW for Commercial, and 2 MW for commercial [347]. Smaller IOUs and other types of utilities have the same cap limit for residential customers (25 kW), but for non-residential systems, it's up to 50 kW [348]. Moreover, there is a system-specific insurance requirement for onboarding into the Net Metering program. [348] For Net Metering customers of each utility, they can roll over their excess energy credits indefinitely to their next utility bills, with no worries about expiry or lapse-related issues. [349]
If we talk about the newly introduced Net Billing scheme,any customer having a renewable system with the specific size limit (mentioned earlier) onboarding with Mon Power and Potomac Edison from January 1, 2025, will be automatically transferred under the new tariff and rules. Legacy retail NEM customers can stay on the default netting scheme for about 25 years (ending on December 31, 2049) [350].
For both Mon Power and Potomac Edison, any excess energy sent to the grid will be calculated based on kWh sent and an approximate rate of $0.091 per kWh [351] [352]. Any unused NEG credits will roll over indefinitely. Another IOU in West Virginia, Appalachian Power Company, is still offering retail Net Metering to its customers. Yet they have submitted a new rate proposal to PSC where any excess generation would be credited at a specific avoided cost, instead of full retail netting [353].
Wisconsin - The state of Wisconsin has a statewide Net Billing-like policy in place, but the rules and regulations are not uniform across utilities. The PSCW or Public Service Commission of Wisconsin requires each IOU and municipal utility to file a tariff for customers with a renewable system who wish to export excess generation to local grids, subject to approval [354].
The backbone of Wisconsin’s Net Billing mechanism was established back in 1982 by a letter-order (file #05-ER-11) issued by PSCW. That casually adopted the early milestone with a system size limit of 20 kW [355]. It took some time to legalize it as PSCW authorized Net Billing through Order 6690-UR-107, which took effect on January 1, 1993 [356].
Major IOUs like We Energies, Wisconsin Public Service Corporation (WPS), Xcel Energy (via its Northern States Power Company affiliate in Wisconsin), and Alliant Energy (operating as Wisconsin Power & Light Co./WP&L) offer Net Billing or a similar program to their consumers. For municipal utilities, we can mention Madison Gas & Electric (MGE) and River Falls Municipal Utilities (RFMU), among others. Let's break down utility-specific rules next.
If we talk about Wisconsin Public Service Corporation (WPS), they buy out all excess generation at their avoided cost, which is currently $0.031 per kWh for systems up to 20 kWh [357]. For systems up to 5 MW in size, We Energies would provide four types of compensation rates - $0.033 per kWh for on-peak Winter, $0.027 per kWh for off-peak winter**, $0.037 per kWh** for on-peak summer, and $0.027 per kWh for off-peak summer. [358]
For We Energies customers, there are two kinds of customer categories. The first one is full retail customers who generally buy electricity from the grid at a stable retail rate, and the second one is TOU customers. Retail customers having systems sized up to 20 kW receive a payback rate of $0.042 per kWh [359]. TOU customers with the same system size rules usually receive a payback rate of $0.049 per kWh for on-peak and $0.038 per kWh for off-peak hours. [359] Similarly, retail consumers having a system size of up to 300 kW receive $0.031 per kWh for excess energy sent to the grid. In this scenario, TOU customers receive a payback rate of $0.04 per kWh for summer on-peak, $0.028 per kWh for summer off-peak, $0.034 per kWh for winter on-peak, $0.029 per kWh for winter off-peak hours [359]. For any size and rate segment, users can carry forward unused credits to their next billing. But if they do not use these unused NEGs before May 1, the credits usually lapse.
If we take the example of a Municipal utility, Madison Gas and Electric Company (MGE) has a system size limit of 20 kW for residential customers and 100 kW for non-residential customers**.** Customers on a retail Non-TOU energy plan receive a flat rate for excess energy delivered to the grid of $0.038 per kWh, with a capacity adder rate of $0.0008 per kWh (ultimately, the rate stays the same) [360]. TOU customers in this case receive $0.034 per kWh with a capacity adder rate of $0.013 per kWh (both change time to time by order), which ultimately adds approx $0.047 per kWh (unstable rate). [360] Unused credits usually roll over continuously rather than being cashed out at the annual true-up time.
For electric cooperatives, these mechanisms are much simpler.
For example, Jackson Electric Cooperative only allows systems up to 20 kW for Net Metering purposes. Any excess electricity sent to the grid by customers usually gets credit at the avoided cost rate. [361]
Wyoming - Wyoming has a state-mandated Net Energy Metering rule in place, established by House Bill 195, effective July 1, 2001. At that time, only IOUs, co-ops, and rural electrification utilities were allowed to serve their consumers under the Net Metering program, having a system size of up to 25 kW [362]. In 2003, the statute was amended via Senate File 106, as municipal utilities got the green signal to offer NEM programs [363].
During 2021, 2023, and 2024, there was an attempt to modify the compensation scheme to crunch the solar savings for Net Metered users. In 2001, Senate File 16 was approved by the Wyoming Senate, which aimed to introduce a new modified NEM structure by eliminating subsidies and opening a grandfathering option to legacy customers [364]. Thankfully, it died after limited testimony [365]. Again in 2023, Senate File 92 was proposed, which attempted to eliminate the standard Net Metering procedure and allow utilities to design their own program by implementing additional fees that could raise charges to current and future rooftop solar customers [366]. On the contrary, House Bill 0094, proposed in 2024 which was beneficial for NEM customers, as it wanted to raise the system size cap to 750 kW [367]. But both the HB 0094 and the 2023-based Senate File 92 couldn't advance and eventually died. Wait, the series of events doesn't end here! In 2025, again, House Bill 183 and Senate File 111 were introduced. These asked the Wyoming PSC to modify the compensation scheme, raise the size cap for eligible systems, and authorize additional charges/fees for customer-generators [368] [369]. Again, both the prosopals died in the chamber.
Wyoming PSC follows a true Net Metering scheme for customers with their own generation of up to 25 kW system size - yet there is a catch. The net excess generation credits are considered as kWh credits on the next bill of customers to offset future bills. After a calendar year, if any unused NEG credit remains, utilities buy out at their specific avoided-cost rate. Utilities can't impose any fee other than the minimum monthly charge. Currently, there is no utility or state-wide cap defined [366].
As the NEM programme in Wyoming is state-mandated, each and every single utility must offer the same to its eligible customers. Some key players in the IOU segment are Black Hills Power, Cheyenne Light, Fuel & Power, Rocky Mountain Power, and Montana-Dakota Utilities Co. For Rural Electric Cooperatives or RECs, we can name Big Horn Rural Electric Company, Wyrulec Company, Bridger Valley Electric Association, Carbon Power & Light, High West Energy, Inc., etc. Garland Light & Power is one of the major municipal utilities in the area.
We have compiled the avoided costs for some of the utilities as follows. Black Hills Power and Cheyenne Light offer the same rate (as both under Black Hills Energy) of $0.032 per kWh [370] [371]. Rocky Mountain Power offers the same at $0.031 per kWh, describing it as unused credit prices rather than an avoided-cost price [372]. Montana-Dakota Utilities pays at around $0.034 per kWh under their parallel generation avoided cost rate [373]. If we talk about RECs, the Bridger Valley Electric has the avoided-cost rate of $0.011 per kWh [374]. The Big Horn Rural Electric does not have an official NEM program, but its Solar and Wind Power Program resembles the exact NEM mechanism, which pays $0.026 per kWh for exported energy [375]. Carbon Power and Light and Wyrulec Company both have nearly the same rate of approximately $0.026 per kWh [376] [377].
[1] Press Report / Article, named “Role of Net Metering in the Evolving Electricity System”, in Chapter 3, Background and History, Current Status, and Near-Term Future of Net Metering by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Dated - 2023. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26704/chapter/5
[2] Quoted directly from the “Energy Policy Act 2005” draft, under “Public Law 109–58”, dated Aug 8, 2005 by Energy.gov https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f14/EPAof2005.pdf
[3] DSIRE, Alabama Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programs, NC Clean Energy Technology Center https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/al
[4] Rate Chart PDF, titled “RATE PAE PURCHASE OF ALTERNATE ENERGY” by Alabama Power https://www.alabamapower.com/content/dam/alabama-power/pdfs-docs/Rates/Rate_PAE.pdf
[5] News Article “PSC Allows Alabama Power To Raise Fee Charged To Solar Power Users,” WBHM 90.3. Dated September 1, 2020 by Robert Carter. https://wbhm.org/2020/psc-allows-alabama-power-to-raise-fee-charged-to-solar-power-users/
[6] Web Page “Net Metering” by Renewable Energy Alaska Project https://alaskarenewableenergy.org/ppf/net-metering/
[7] Blog post by Clean Energy Authority, titled “Net Metering” https://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-rebates-and-incentives/alaska/net-metering
[8]Homer Electric Association, “Net Metering Program,” Homer Electric Association Official Website https://www.homerelectric.com/energy-efficiency/net-metering/
[9] Webpage “Alaska Renewable Energy Programs,” by DSIRE https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/ak
[10] Webpage titled “Net Metering in Arizona” by Solar United Neighbors https://solarunitedneighbors.org/resources/net-metering-in-arizona/
[11]Webpage titled “Time-of-Use Export Price Plan for Solar Customers” by Salt River Project, Derived from Official Utility SRP Website https://www.srpnet.com/price-plans/residential-electric/solar/time-of-use-export
[12] Article titled “Arkansas Ends 1:1 Net Metering: What’s Next?” by SunValue https://www.sunvalue.com/posts/arkansas-ends-1-1-net-metering-whats-next
[13] Blog “Key Net Metering Changes in Illinois and Arkansas” by Project Solar https://projectsolar.com/blogs/solar/key-net-metering-changes-in-illinois-and-arkansas
[14] Document titled Arkansas Compliance Tariff_03-05-2025 by SWEPCO, Source - Official Website https://www.swepco.com/lib/docs/ratesandtariffs/Arkansas/Arkansas_Compliance_Tariff_03-05-2025.pdf
[15] Document titled “EAL NLN-M Document,” by Entergy Arkansas on Net Metering https://www.entergyarkansas.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/eal_nln-m.pdf
[16] Rulemaking Document obtained from the CPUC Official Website, on NEM Rules https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/PublishedDocs/Published/G000/M089/K386/89386131.PDF
[17] Article titled “NEM 3.0 Proposal and Impacts for California Homeowners,” by Solar.com Official Website https://www.solar.com/learn/nem-3-0-proposal-and-impacts-for-california-homeowners/
[18] Webpage titled “California,” by Craftstrom https://craftstrom.com/california/
[19] Agenda Document obtained from the CPUC Official Website, on Ratesetting https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/PublishedDocs/Efile/G000/M498/K526/498526033.PDF
[20] Article titled “NEM 3.0 Export Rate Adders,” by Solar.com https://www.solar.com/learn/nem-3-0-export-rate-adders/
[21] Database titled “Historical Election Data,” provided by the Colorado Secretary of State's Official Website https://historicalelectiondata.coloradosos.gov/contest/6355
[22] Webpage titled “Solar Inquiry,” by Consolidated Cooperative Official Website https://www.consolidated.coop/solar-inquiry/
[23] Legal Code titled “Colorado Revised Statutes Title 40, Section 40-2-124,” by Justia, Justia Law Website https://law.justia.com/codes/colorado/title-40/public-utilities/general-and-administrative/article-2/part-1/section-40-2-124/
[24] Webpage titled “Solar Energy Program Net Metering Changes,” by Colorado Springs Utilities, CSU Official Website https://www.csu.org/solar-energy-program/net-metering-changes
[25] Webpage titled “Net Metering,” by Consolidated Electric, Consolidated Electric Official Website https://www.consolidatedelectric.com/net-metering
[26] Webpage titled “Net Energy Metering (NEM)” by the California Public Utilities Commission https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/NEM/
[27] Bill titled “Senate Bill 298” by the Delaware General Assembly, derived from the Delaware Legislature Website https://legis.delaware.gov/BillDetail/109520
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[178] Webpage titled “Bill Text: NC H872 | 2025‑2026 Regular Session” (North Carolina House Bill 872) by the North Carolina General Assembly. https://www.ncleg.net/sessions/2003/bills/house/html/h872v1.html ncleg.net
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[180] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by North Carolina Public Staff. https://publicstaff.nc.gov/electric/net-metering publicstaff.nc.gov
[181] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by Dominion Energy – North Carolina. https://www.dominionenergy.com/north-carolina/save-energy/net-metering
[182] Blog titled “Duke Energy’s Net Metering is Changing — Here’s What You Should Know” by Cape Fear Solar Systems. https://capefearsolarsystems.com/duke-energys-net-metering-is-changing-heres-what-you-know/
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[184] PDF document titled “Rider NMB” by Duke Energy (North Carolina). Contains, NMB Tariffs https://www.duke-energy.com/-/media/pdfs/for-your-home/rates/electric-nc/ncridernmb.pdf
[185] PDF document titled “Rider RSC” by Duke Energy (North Carolina). Contains, RSC Tariffs https://www.duke-energy.com/-/media/pdfs/for-your-home/rates/electric-nc/ncriderrsc.pdf
[186] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by DSIRE USA. https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/285
[187] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by Clean Energy Authority. https://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-rebates-and-incentives/north-dakota/net-metering
[188] Webpage titled “Renewable / Solar Energy” by Montana‑Dakota Utilities Company. https://www.montana-dakota.com/energy-efficiency/renewable-solar-energy/ Montana-Dakota Utilities CO.
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[190] Webpage/PDF titled “(Untitled) – Xcel Energy – Salesforce link” by Xcel Energy. Actually Tariff https://xcelnew.my.salesforce.com/sfc/p/#1U0000011ttV/a/R3000002e09p/Kl6yJH9RmVItoRuP8jH5gaTd5OJm4ga8X4oxIMhZTDU
[191] Webpage titled “Rule 4901:1‑10‑28 Net Metering” (Ohio Administrative Code) by Ohio Administrative Code. https://codes.ohio.gov/ohio-administrative-code/rule-4901%3A1-10-28
[192] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by Solar QC Group. https://www.solarqcgroup.com/solar-incentives/OH/36/net-metering
[193] Webpage titled “Net Metering in Ohio” by Solar United Neighbors. https://solarunitedneighbors.org/resources/net-metering-in-ohio/
[194] Webpage titled “Section 4928.67 Standard Contract or Tariff Providing for Net Energy Metering” (Ohio Revised Code) by Justia Law. https://law.justia.com/codes/ohio/title-49/chapter-4928/section-4928-67/
[195] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by Clean Energy Authority. https://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-rebates-and-incentives/oklahoma/net-metering
[196] Webpage titled “Oklahoma Net Metering” by Suntria. https://suntria.com/blog/oklahoma-net-metering/
[197] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by DSIRE USA. https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/286
[198] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by the Oklahoma Corporation Commission. https://oklahoma.gov/occ/divisions/public-utility/energy/electric-utility/netmetering.html
[199] PDF document titled “PSO NEBO Avoided Energy Prices” by Public Service Company of Oklahoma. Contains, Avoided Cost https://www.psoklahoma.com/lib/docs/ratesandtariffs/Oklahoma/PSO_NEBO_Avoided_Energy_Prices_10‑23‑2025.pdf
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[201] Webpage titled “Rates & Fees” by Northeast Oklahoma Electric Cooperative. https://www.noec.coop//member-services/rates-fees/
[202] Webpage titled “ORS 757.300 – Net Metering Facility Allowed to Connect to Public Utility; Conditions for Connecting and Measuring Energy; Rules; Application to Out‑of‑State Utilities” (Oregon statute) by Oregon Revised Statutes. https://oregon.public.law/statutes/ors_757.300
[203] Webpage titled “1999 Or. Law 944 – Chapter 757 – Utility Regulation Generally” by the Oregon Legislature. https://www.oregonlegislature.gov/bills_laws/lawsstatutes/1999orLaw0944.html
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[205] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by DSIRE USA. https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/39/net-metering
[206] Webpage titled “Title 66 – Public Utilities” (Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes) by the Pennsylvania General Assembly. https://www.legis.state.pa.us/wu01/li/li/ct/htm/66/66.htm
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[221] Webpage titled “Tropical Issues Brief: Net Metering Programs” by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/21651.pdf
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[224] Webpage on “Net Metering Program Detail: Rhode Island” by Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/287
[225] Webpage titled “Section 39‑26‑4 ‑ 3” by Justia. https://law.justia.com/codes/rhode-island/title-39/chapter-39-26-4/section-39-26-4-3/
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[228] “Renewable Net Metering Credit and Excess Renewable Net Metering Credit Tariff” by Rhode Island Energy https://portalconnect.rienergy.com/RI/servlet/servlet.FileDownload?file=015Nu000008mGIq
[229] “Net Metering Provision Document” by Rhode Island Energy https://portalconnect.rienergy.com/RI/servlet/servlet.FileDownload?file=015Nu000005DSbV
[230] Historical Net Metering Tariff XLS by Rhode Island Energy https://portalconnect.rienergy.com/RI/servlet/servlet.FileDownload?file=015Nu000008mMjB
[231] Webpage titled “Net Metering Policy” by Block Island Power Company https://blockislandpowercompany.com/net-metering-policy/
[232] Webpage titled “Compliance Letter of Submittal 12‑26‑24 RIPUC‑24‑42‑EL” by Clear River Electric & Water District. https://crewri.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Compliance-Letter-of-Submittal-12-26-24-RIPUC-24-42-EL.pdf
[233] Webpage titled “Net Metering Policy” by Clear River Electric & Water District. https://crewri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/RIPUC-902-Net-Metering-Policy.pdf
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[235] News Report titled “Duke Energy joins other stakeholders in solar net metering agreement in South Carolina” by Duke Energy News Center. https://news.duke-energy.com/releases/duke-energy-joins-other-stakeholders-in-solar-net-metering-agreement-in-south-carolina
[236] Webpage titled “Bill 1189 (2013‑2014) – South Carolina Distributed Energy Resource Program / Net Energy Metering” by South Carolina Legislature Online. https://www.scstatehouse.gov/sess120_2013-2014/bills/1189.htm
[237] Webpage titled “H.3659 ‘Energy Freedom Act’” by Conservation Voters of South Carolina.https://www.cvsc.org/legislative/bills/bill/energy-freedom-act/
[238] Blog Page titled “South Carolina unanimously passes solar bill to lift 2% net metering cap” by Utility Dive. https://www.utilitydive.com/news/south-carolina-unanimously-passes-solar-bill-to-lift-2-net-metering-cap/554490/
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[241] Webpage titled “SC _NEM Settlement Summary 10‑20” by Energy NC. https://energync.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/SC_NEM_Settlement_Summary_10-20.pdf
[242] Webpage titled “Rider to Retail Rates ‑ Third Net Energy Metering” by Dominion Energy South Carolina, Inc.https://cdn-dominionenergy-prd-001.azureedge.net/-/media/content/rates-and-tariffs/pdfs/south-carolina/electric/riders/rider-to-retail-rates-third-net-energy-metering.pdf
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[244] “PR‑1 Small Power Production & Cogeneration Rate” by Dominion Energy South Carolina, Inc. https://cdn-dominionenergy-prd-001.azureedge.net/-/media/content/rates-and-tariffs/pdfs/south-carolina/electric/electric-cogeneration-standby-rates/pr-1-small-power-production-cogeneration.pdf
[245] Webpage titled “SCRIDERRNM” by Duke Energy – South Carolina rates. Contains, Net Metering Tariffs https://www.duke-energy.com/-/media/pdfs/for-your-home/rates/electric-sc/scriderrnm.pdf?rev=76b46b5db2c84ec9b15f742288d7e73c
[246] Webpage titled “SCRIDERRSC” by Duke Energy – South Carolina rates. Contains, Residential Solar Choice Tariffs https://www.duke-energy.com/-/media/pdfs/for-your-home/rates/electric-sc/scriderrsc.pdf?rev=a41e3d646baa4ef0a3eeccfcae6e3f28
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[247] Webpage titled “Compensation” by the South Dakota Public Utilities Commission. https://puc.sd.gov/energy/wind/compensation.aspx
[248] Webpage “Tariff and Rates” by Black Hills Electric Cooperative https://bhec.coop/rates
[249] Qualifying Facility Rates and Requirements” by the Center for Growth and Opportunity.https://www.thecgo.org/research/qualifying-facility-rates-and-requirements/
[250] Webpage titled “South Dakota solar interconnection” by Black Hills Energy. https://www.blackhillsenergy.com/electric-services/solar-program/south-dakota-solar-interconnection
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[252] Webpage titled “SDelectric96 (PDF)” by Montana‑Dakota Utilities Company. Contains, Cogeneration and Small Power Production Tariff for Occasional Purchase https://www.montana-dakota.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/Rates‑Tariffs/SouthDakota/Electric/SDelectric96.pdf
[253] Webpage titled “SDelectric95 (PDF)” by Montana‑Dakota Utilities Company. Contains, Cogeneration and Small Power Production Tariff for Regular Consumers https://www.montana-dakota.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/Rates‑Tariffs/SouthDakota/Electric/SDelectric95.pdf
[254] Webpage titled “Se_Section_9 (PDF)” by Xcel Energy. Contains, Cogeneration Tariff https://www.xcelenergy.com/staticfiles/xe-responsive/Company/Rates%20&%20Regulations/Se_Section_9.pdf
[255] Webpage titled “California’s Net Metering Program as required by AB 58” by the California Public Utilities Commission. https://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/published/REPORT/45133.htm
[256] Webpage titled “Net Energy Metering and Net Billing” by California Public Utilities Commission. https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/industries-and-topics/electrical-energy/demand-side-management/customer-generation/net-energy-metering-and-net-billing
[257] Blog post “Everything You Need To Know About California Net Metering 2.0” by SolarReviews. https://www.solarreviews.com/blog/california-net-metering-nem-2
[258] Document titled “Analysis sheds light on how the market has evolved one year after the phase‑out of net metering” by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. https://emp.lbl.gov/news/analysis-sheds-light-how-market-has-evolved-one-year-after-phase-out-net-metering
[259] (Document) “AB‑2619 (Connolly)” by the California State Assembly. https://autl.assembly.ca.gov/system/files/2024-04/ab-2619-connolly.pdf
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[262] “Volume 15, Issue 16: Notices of Final Rulemaking” by the Arizona Secretary of State https://apps.azsos.gov/public_services/register/2009/16/final.pdf
[263] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by UniSource Energy Services https://www.uesaz.com/net-metering/
[264] Document “New Rider Rate Chart” by Unisource Energy Services https://docs.uesaz.com/wp-content/uploads/801-UNSE-Statement-of-Charges-Clean.pdf
[265] Document “RCP Rider Rate Chart” by Unisource Energy Services https://docs.uesaz.com/wp-content/uploads/714-UNSE-Rider-14-RCP-Clean.pdf
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[267] Document “RCP Rider Rate Chart” by Tucson Electric Power https://docs.tep.com/wp-content/uploads/714-Rider-14-RCP.pdf
[268] Webpage titled “Net Metering” by Solar QC Group. https://www.solarqcgroup.com/solar-incentives/FL/2880/net-metering
[269] Webpage titled “Net Metering Guidelines” by Florida Power & Light Company https://www.fpl.com/clean-energy/net-metering/guidelines.html
[270] Webpage titled “Generate Your Own / Renewable Energy Generation” by Duke Energy. https://www.duke-energy.com/home/products/renewable-energy/generate-your-own/renewable-energy-generation
[271] Document titled “Electric Tariff Section 10” by Florida Power & Light Company. https://www.fpl.com/content/dam/fplgp/us/en/rates/pdf/electric-tariff-section10.pdf
[272] Webpage titled “Net Metering Guidelines” by *Lee County Electric Cooperative (LCEC).*https://www.lcec.net/wp-content/uploads/Guidelinesv2.pdf
[273] New Report titled “GRU, Local Solar Companies Disagree on Net Metering” by Main Street Daily News. https://www.mainstreetdailynews.com/govt-politics/gru-local-solar-companies-disagree-net-metering
[274] Document titled “FY 2025 1000 Electric Rates with Ordinance Language Change” by Gainesville Regional Utilities (GRU). https://www.gru.com/Portals/0/2025%20Updates/FY2025%201000%20Electric%20rates%20with%20ordinance%20language%20change.pdf?ver=MxPVE7O8xXS_117_-QYrrg%3d%3d
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[276] Report titled “Report on the Database on Laws and Policies Related to Renewable Energy”. Author: Véronique Robichaud, by Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), 2006. https://cec.org/files/documents/publications/2297-report-database-laws-and-policies-related-renewable-energy-en.pdf
[277] Report titled “Report on the Status of Net Energy Metering in the State of Maryland” by the Public Service Commission of Maryland. https://www.psc.state.md.us/wp-content/uploads/2008-Net-Metering-Report_Final-_020808.pdf
[278] Webpage titled “Tennessee Solar Incentives, Tax Credits, & Rebates (2023): What You Need to Know Before You Go Solar” by Renewable Energy Rebates. https://renewableenergyrebates.org/solar-incentives-and-rebates/tennessee
[279] Webpage titled “Renewables for Large Business and Industry” by Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). https://www.tva.com/energy/valley-renewable-energy/renewables-for-large-business-and-industry
[280] Document titled “Distributed Power Production (DPP) Documents – March 2022” by Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). https://www.tva.com/docs/default-source/1-float/march_2022_dpp_documents_for_publishinga32159c4-5499-417b-9b01-71e57b29f6df.pdf?sfvrsn=5f8753a0_3
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[283] Article titled “Tennessee Mandates Net Metering Disclosure for Solar Energy System Installations” by CitizenPortal.AI. https://citizenportal.ai/articles/2328383/Tennessee/Tennessee-mandates-net-metering-disclosure-for-solar-energy-system-installations
[284] Bill page titled “Tennessee Senate Bill 1124 (2025)” from LegiScan. https://legiscan.com/TN/bill/SB1124/2025
[285] Webpage titled “Wind Powering America: Texas Clean Energy for the 21st Century” by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/28366.pdf
[286] News Report "Here’s how Texas lawmakers – and Enron – Shaped the State’s Electrical Market" Published by Texas Standard, Author: Andrew Weber, Dated December 22, 2021 https://www.texasstandard.org/stories/heres-how-texas-lawmakers-and-enron-shaped-the-states-electrical-market/
[287] Webpage titled “Value of Solar Rate: Austin Energy's Solar Bill Credits” by Austin Energy. Contains, VOS Rate Charts https://austinenergy.com/rates/residential-rates/value-of-solar-rate
[288] Program Page titled “San Antonio City Public Service (CPS Energy) - Net Metering” by DSIRE https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/5547
[289] Blog Page titled “Net Metering in Texas: Solar Buyback Plans & How They Work” by Quote for Solar, Author: Jan Watermann, Published on May 29, 2025https://www.quote-for-solar.com/blog/net-metering-in-texas-solar-buyback-plans-how-they-work/
[290] Webpage titled “Net Metering for Renewable Energy Resources” by Energy Texas https://www.entergytexas.com/net-metering
[291] Rate Sheet for Purchase Excess Energy from Qualifying facilities, by Energy Texas https://www.entergytexas.com/wp-content/uploads/eti_sqf.pdf
[292] Filing Receipt Document Page mentioning Historical Avoided Cost of Energy Estimate, by Energy Texas https://www.entergytexas.com/wp-content/uploads/Entergy-Texas-Avoided-Cost-Data.pdf
[293] Article titled “Renewable Energy” on the Renewable Energy Programs offered by Brownsville Public Utilities Board https://www.brownsville-pub.com/gogreen/renewable-energy/
[294] Webpage titled “Interconnection Agreement” by Brownsville Public Utilities Board https://www.brownsville-pub.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/BPUB-Interconnection-Agreement-5-15-2025.pdf
[295] Rate Sheet for Fuel Purchase Energy Charge, by Brownsville Public Utilities Board https://www.brownsville-pub.com/utility-services/electric/electric-rates/fuel-purchase-energy-charge/
[296] Webpage titled “Press Release: Agreement Announced for Utah Rooftop Solar” by Utah Policy https://utahpolicy.com/archive/14186-press-release-agreement-announced-for-utah-rooftop-solar/
[297] Article titled “RMP, Utah Reach Net Metering Agreement” by PV Magazine USA. Published August 29, 2017, Author: Frank Adroka https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2017/08/29/rmp-utah-reach-net-metering-agreement/
[298] Webpage titled “Utah Net Billing” by Clean Energy Authority https://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-rebates-and-incentives/utah/net-billing/
[299] Program Page titled “Net Billing - Rocky Mountain Power” by DSIRE (Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency) https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/743
[300] Document titled “Schedule 137 Net Billing Service” by Rocky Mountain Power. Contains Net Metering Tariffs https://www.rockymountainpower.net/content/dam/pcorp/documents/en/rockymountainpower/rates-regulation/utah/rates/137_Net_Billing_Service.pdf
[301] Document titled “2024 Net Metering Rate Summary” by the Utility segment of the City of Provo, Utah. Contains Net Metering Tariffs https://www.provo.gov/DocumentCenter/View/4188/2024-Net-Metering-Rate-Summary?bidId=
[302] Document titled “MCP Net Metering Interconnection Agreement (Residential) 2025” by Murray City Power https://www.murray.utah.gov/DocumentCenter/View/16495/MCP-Net-Metering-Interconnection-Agreement-Residential-2025?bidId=
[303] Document titled “MCP Net Metering Interconnection Agreement (Commercial) 2025” by Murray City Power https://www.murray.utah.gov/DocumentCenter/View/16494/MCP-Net-Metering-Interconnection-Agreement-Commercial-2025?bidId=
[304] Article “An Overview of Brigham City’s Electric Utility” by Brigham City, Utah. https://www.bcutah.gov/o/brighamcity/page/an-overview-of-brigham-citys-electric-utility
[305] Electric Rate Schedule by Bountiful City Light and Power, Utah. https://www.bountifulutah.gov/file/970092b4-5f1a-407e-ac4c-5e63a969d9bf
[306] Bill titled “Utah House Bill 7 (2002): Net Metering”, derived from the Utah State Legislature https://le.utah.gov/~2002/bills/hbillenr/HB0007.pdf
[307] Net Metering Program page titled “Net Metering” by Vermont Public Power Supply Authority (VPPSA) https://vppsa.com/energy/net-metering/
[308] Statute page titled “Title 30: Public Service, Chapter 089: Net Metering” from the Vermont Legislature https://legislature.vermont.gov/statutes/fullchapter/30/089
[309] Document titled “Net Metering” by the University of Vermont https://www.uvm.edu/d10-files/documents/2024-06/Net_Metering_0.pdf
[310] Report titled “2023 Net Metering Report (Appendix C of Annual Energy Report)” by Vermont Legislature’s Joint Fiscal Office https://ljfo.vermont.gov/assets/Meetings/Renewable-Energy-Standard-Reform-Working-Group/2023-11-15/9e4269be00/2023-Net-Metering-Report-Appendix-C-of-Annual-Energy-Report.pdf
[311] Document titled “Net Metering Rules” from Statescape Regulatory Services https://services.statescape.com/ssu/Regs/ss_8587240969353753710.pdf
[312] Article titled “Vermont Boosts Solar By Nearly Quadrupling Net Metering Cap” by CleanTechnica, Author: Silvio Marcacc, Published April 3, 2014 https://cleantechnica.com/2014/04/03/vermont-boosts-solar-by-nearly-quadrupling-net-metering-cap
[313] Net Metering Program details by Vermont Electric Cooperative https://vermontelectric.coop/net-metering
[314] Tariff document titled “Self-Generation Net Metering” by Green Mountain Power. Contains Rate Schedule https://static.greenmountainpower.com/tariffs/documents/Self-Generation-Net-Metering.pdf
[315] Tariff document titled “Net Metering Tariff” by Washington Electric Cooperative. Contains Rate Schedule https://irp.cdn-website.com/b6c3b0cb/files/uploaded/Net%20Metering%20Tariff.pdf
[316] Presentation titled “Net Metering in Virginia” by the Virginia Division of Legislative Services. Presented September 21, 2010. Author: Tommy Oliver https://dls.virginia.gov/GROUPS/energy/meetings/092110/Oliver_Presentation.pdf
[317] Program details regarding Virginia Net Metering by Solar QC Group https://www.solarqcgroup.com/solar-incentives/VA/40/net-metering
[318] Blog “Virginia Increases Residential Net Metering Limit” by Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Published April 5, 2011. Author: Laurel Passera https://irecusa.org/blog/irec/virginia-increases-residential-net-metering-limit/
[319] Statute page titled “Virginia Code Title 56, Section 56-594: Net energy metering” from the Virginia Legislative Information System https://law.lis.virginia.gov/vacode/title56/section56-594/
[320] Article titled “Virginia Enacts Law Expanding Solar for Customers of Electric Cooperatives” by EnerKnol. Published April 12, 2021 https://enerknol.com/virginia-enacts-law-expanding-solar-for-customers-of-electric-cooperatives/
[321] Legal Article titled “Summary of the Virginia Clean Economy Act” by JD Supra https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/summary-of-the-virginia-clean-economy-16631/
[322] Statute page titled “Virginia Code § 56-594. Net Energy Metering” from Justia https://law.justia.com/codes/virginia/title-56/chapter-23/section-56-594/
[323] Program Page titled “Net Metering - Virginia” by DSIRE (Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency) https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/40
[324] Virginia’s Net Metering FAQs provided by Appalachian Power https://www.appalachianpower.com/lib/docs/business/builders/VirginiaNetMeteringFAQsTY.pdf
[325] Tariff document titled “Rider A - Net Metering Service for Renewable Generating Facilities” by Dominion Energy Virginia https://cdn-dominionenergy-prd-001.azureedge.net/-/media/content/renewable-energy-programs/pdfs/virginia/vatc25ra.pdf?rev=0dedba8bb07d47b19eff7f283801de99
[326] Report titled “2024 State of the Market Report for PJM: Section 3” by Monitoring Analytics https://www.monitoringanalytics.com/reports/PJM_State_of_the_Market/2024/2024-som-pjm-sec3.pdf
[327] Webpage titled “Net Energy Metering (NEM)” by the Virginia, Maryland & Delaware Association of Electric Cooperatives (VMDAEC) https://vmdaec.com/nem/
[328] Article titled “Appalachian Power Company requests reduction to pay rate for net metering solar customers” by Virginia Mercury. Published September 13, 2024. Author: Charlin Paullin https://virginiamercury.com/2024/09/13/appalachian-power-company-requests-reduction-to-pay-rate-for-net-metering-solar-customers/
[329] Blog Post titled “Virginia State Corporation Commission protects rooftop solar in Appalachian Power territory” by Advanced Energy United. Published October 10, 2024. Author: Savannah Gribbins https://blog.advancedenergyunited.org/articles/virginia-state-corporation-commission-protects-rooftop-solar-in-appalachian-power-territory/
[330] Net Metering Programs detail provided by the Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission (UTC). https://www.utc.wa.gov/regulated-industries/utilities/energy/net-metering
[331] Bill Report titled “Senate Bill 6692 (1997-98 Biennium): Net Metering” from the Washington State Legislature https://lawfilestestext.leg.wa.gov/BienniumTest/1997-98/Htm/Bill%20Reports/Senate/6692.SBR.htm
[332] Bill Report titled “Senate Bill 2352 (2005-06 Biennium): Net Metering” from the Washington State Legislature https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2005-06/Htm/Bill%20Reports/Senate/2352-S.SBR.htm
[333] Report titled “Washington 2019 Legislative Digest” by Northwest Energy Coalition https://nwenergy.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Washington-2019-Legislative-Digest.pdf
[334] Net Energy Metering (NEM) Program details by the Washington State Department of Commerce https://www.commerce.wa.gov/energy-policy/electricity-policy/nem/
[335] Program page titled “Net Metering - Washington” by DSIRE (Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency) https://programs.dsireusa.org/system/program/detail/42
[336] Article titled “PSE Net Metering Program” by Western Solar Inc, Author: Trish Merriman, Dated August 1, 2023 https://www.westernsolarinc.com/pse-net-metering-program/
[337] Article titled “UTC Approves PSE Request to Extend Net Metering” by Washington Solar Energy Industries Association (WASEIA). Published onMarch 11, 2024 https://waseia.org/utc-approves-pse-request-to-extend-net-metering/
[338] Program Details page titled “Customer Generation & Net Metering” by Pacific Power https://www.pacificpower.net/savings-energy-choices/customer-generation.html
[339] FAQ for Washington's Net Metering Successor Tariff” by Pacific Power https://www.pacificpower.net/content/dam/pcorp/documents/en/pacificpower/savings-energy-choices/customer-generation/WA-Net-Metering-Successor-FAQ.pdf
[340] Document titled “Residential Rates - 2025” by Kittitas County Public Utility District, Washington. Contains Energy Tariff https://wa-kittitaspud2.civicplus.com/DocumentCenter/View/1671/Residential-Rates---2025
[341] Tariff Rates data of 2025, provided by Orcas Power & Light Cooperative (OPALCO). https://www.opalco.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2025-Tariffs-1.pdf
[342] Solar Rate for Residential Members by Orcas Power & Light Cooperative (OPALCO) https://www.opalco.com/quick-fact-opalco-solar-rate-for-residential-members/2022/12/
[343] Webpage titled “West Virginia Solar Incentives, Tax Credits, & Rebates (2023)” by Renewable Energy Rebates https://renewableenergyrebates.org/solar-incentives-and-rebates/west-virginia
[344] Blog titled “West Virginia Net Metering” by Solar QC Group https://www.solarqcgroup.com/solar-incentives/WV/2380/net-metering
[345] Report titled “Powering West Virginia: Summary of Legislation” from the West Virginia Legislature https://www.wvlegislature.gov/senate1/Powering_West_Virginia_Summary_of_Legislation.pdf
[346] News Report titled “PSC approves settlements involving Mon Power net metering cases” by WV MetroNews. Published March 27, 2024 https://wvmetronews.com/2024/03/27/psc-approves-settlements-involving-mon-power-net-metering-cases/
[347] Report titled “State of the States: Fuel Cells in America 2011” by U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Foreword by Connecticut Governor Dannel P. Malloy, Published June 2011 https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/articles/state-states-fuel-cells-america-2011-0
[348] West Virginia Net Metering Customer Information Package provided by Appalachian Power https://www.appalachianpower.com/lib/docs/business/builders/WVNetMeteringCustomerPackage11-15-2019.pdf
[349] Blog “West Virginia Net Metering” by EnergyBot https://www.energybot.com/incentives/west-virginia/net-metering-2380.html
[350] Article titled “PSC approves reduced Mon Power/Potomac Edison base rate hike; compromise net metering credit achieved in settlements” by Energy Freedom WV. Updated October 3, 2024. Author: David Beard from The Dominion Post https://www.energyfreedomwv.org/news/2024/10/3/psc-approves-reduced-mon-powerpotomac-edison-base-rate-hike-compromise-net-metering-credit-achieved-in-settlements-1
[351] Retail Tariff provided for West Virginia Mon Power by FirstEnergy Corp https://www.firstenergycorp.com/content/dam/customer/Customer%20Choice/Files/west-virginia/tariffs/WVMPRetailTariff.pdf
[352] Retail Tariff provided for West Virginia Potomac Energy by FirstEnergy Corp https://www.firstenergycorp.com/content/dam/customer/Customer%20Choice/Files/west-virginia/tariffs/WVPERetailTariff.pdf
[353] 2025 West Virginia Base Case Tariff by Appalachian Power https://www.appalachianpower.com/lib/docs/ratesandtariffs/WestVirginia/2025BaseCaseTariffPagesEff9-29-25.pdf
[354] Blog titled “Wisconsin Net Metering” by Clean Energy Authority https://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-rebates-and-incentives/wisconsin/net-metering
[355] A report on "Net Metering Policy in Wisconsin’s Electric Cooperatives" by Cheq Bay Renewables. Author: Bill Bailey, Published on September 2, 2020 https://www.cheqbayrenewables.org/uploads/1/0/9/8/109801585/net_metering_report_final.pdf
[356] Report titled “Net Metering Programs: An Analysis of the Benefits to Participants and Host Utilities” by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Published January 1996 https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/old/21651.pdf
[357] Wisconsin Public Service Corporation Rate for Net-Metering Service - PG4 https://www.wisconsinpublicservice.com/company/wi_tariffs/PG4.pdf
[358] Wisconsin Public Service Corporation Rate for Net-Metering Service - PG2A https://www.wisconsinpublicservice.com/company/wi_tariffs/PG-2A.pdf
[359] Wisconsin Electric Rates by We Energies https://www.we-energies.com/pdfs/etariffs/wisconsin/elecrateswi.pdf
[360] Electric Rates by Madison Gas and Electric (MGE). Effective October 22, 2025. https://www.mge.com/MGE/media/MGE-Library/documents/rates-electric/electric-rates-20251022.pdf
[361] Tariff Schedule titled “JEC 305: Distributed Generation” by Jackson Electric Cooperative. Effective May 26, 2021 https://www.jackelec.com/sites/jackelec/files/JEC%20Site/ENERGY%20SOLUTIONS/Green%20Power/Distributed%20Generation/JEC%20305_Distributed%20Generation_05262021.pdf
[362] Blog titled “Wyoming Net Metering” by Solar QC Group https://www.solarqcgroup.com/solar-incentives/WY/553/net-metering
[363] Report titled “Customer-Sited PV: A Survey of Clean Energy Fund Support” by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Published March 2005 https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/36759.pdf
[364] Article titled “Bill to overhaul net metering system approved by Wyoming Senate” by National Wind Watch. Published February 1, 2021, Author: Camille Erickson from Casper Star Tribune https://www.wind-watch.org/news/2021/02/01/bill-to-overhaul-net-metering-system-approved-by-wyoming-senate/
[365] News Report titled “Controversial bill changing rooftop solar rate structure dies after limited testimony” by Wyoming Public Media. Published February 21, 2023, Author: Caitlin Tan https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/natural-resources-energy/2023-02-21/controversial-bill-changing-rooftop-solar-rate-structure-dies-after-limited-testimony
[366] News Article titled “Powder River Basin Resource Council fights net metering bill” by County 17. Published January 20, 2023, Author: Mary Stroka https://county17.com/2023/01/20/powder-river-basin-resource-council-fights-net-metering-bill/
[367] Bill page titled “Wyoming House Bill 94 (2024): Net Metering” from LegiScan https://legiscan.com/WY/text/HB0094/2024
[368] Bill page titled “Wyoming Senate File 111 (2025): Net Metering” from LegiScan https://legiscan.com/WY/bill/SF0111/2025
[369] Bill page titled “Wyoming House Bill 183 (2025): Net Metering” from LegiScan https://legiscan.com/WY/bill/HB0183/2025
[370] Net Metering Information by Black Hills Energy https://www.blackhillsenergy.com/sites/blackhillsenergy.com/files/clfp_electricity_0.pdf
[371] Document titled “New Net Metering Packet (2016)” by Black Hills Energy https://www.blackhillsenergy.com/sites/blackhillsenergy.com/files/clfp_new-net-metering-packet-2016.pdf
[372] Tariff document titled “Schedule 37: Avoided Cost Purchases from Qualifying Facilities” by Rocky Mountain Power https://www.rockymountainpower.net/content/dam/pcorp/documents/en/rockymountainpower/rates-regulation/wyoming/rates/037_Avoided_Cost_Purchases_from_Qualifying_Facilities.pdf
[373] Tariff Document Wyoming Electric Rate 57 by Montana-Dakota Utilities https://www.montana-dakota.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/Rates-Tariffs/Wyoming/Electric/WYElectric57-clean.pdf
[374] Rate Summary Sheet by Bighorn Valley Electric Association, Effective 2025 https://www.bvea.coop/images/pdf/Rate_Info_2025/No_1_-_Rate_Summary_Sheet.pdf
[375] Avoided Cost Rate document by Bighorn Rural Electric Association https://www.bighornrea.com/sites/default/files/documents/Rates/Avoided%20Cost%20-%20clean%20version%20new.pdf
[376] Carbon Power & Light Rate Tariffs, Effective June 25, 2025. https://www.carbonpower.com/sites/default/files/Tarriffs/Carbon%20Power%20%26%20Light%2C%20Rate%20Tariffs%20Official%20Stamped%20Copy%20final%2006252025.pdf
[377] Webpage titled “Renewables & Distributed Generation” by Wyrulec. https://www.wyrulec.com/renewables-distributed-generation